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Electric double-layer capacitor _ Wikipedia audio article
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00:00:00.030 a super capacitor SC also called a super 00:00:03.43900:00:03.449 cap ultracapacitor or gold cap is a 00:00:05.36000:00:05.370 high-capacity capacitor with capacitance 00:00:07.28000:00:07.290 values much higher than other capacitors 00:00:08.99000:00:09.000 but lower voltage limits that bridge the 00:00:10.73000:00:10.740 gap between electrolytic capacitors and 00:00:12.49900:00:12.509 rechargeable batteries they typically 00:00:14.78000:00:14.790 store 10 to 100 times more energy per 00:00:16.91000:00:16.920 unit volume or mass than electrolytic 00:00:18.71000:00:18.720 capacitors can accept and deliver charge 00:00:20.48000:00:20.490 much faster than batteries and tolerate 00:00:22.37000:00:22.380 many more charge and discharge cycles 00:00:24.14000:00:24.150 than rechargeable batteries super 00:00:26.68900:00:26.699 capacitors are used in applications 00:00:28.33900:00:28.349 requiring many rapid charge discharge 00:00:30.01900:00:30.029 cycles rather than long term compact 00:00:32.03000:00:32.040 energy storage within cars buses trains 00:00:34.31000:00:34.320 cranes and elevators where they are used 00:00:36.13900:00:36.149 for regenerative braking short-term 00:00:37.76000:00:37.770 energy storage or burst mode power 00:00:39.44000:00:39.450 delivery smaller units are used as 00:00:41.90000:00:41.910 memory backup for static random-access 00:00:43.28000:00:43.290 memory SRA M unlike ordinary capacitors 00:00:47.24000:00:47.250 super capacitors do not use the 00:00:48.79900:00:48.809 conventional solid dielectric but rather 00:00:50.63000:00:50.640 they use electrostatic double layer 00:00:52.40000:00:52.410 capacitance and electrochemical pseudo 00:00:54.20000:00:54.210 capacitance both of which contribute to 00:00:55.97000:00:55.980 the total capacitance of the capacitor 00:00:57.11000:00:57.120 with a few differences 00:00:59.02000:00:59.030 electrostatic double layer capacitors 00:01:01.34000:01:01.350 EDL sees use carbon electrodes or 00:01:03.50000:01:03.510 derivatives with much higher 00:01:04.54900:01:04.559 electrostatic double layer capacitance 00:01:06.38000:01:06.390 than electrochemical pseudo capacitance 00:01:08.17900:01:08.189 achieving separation of charge in a 00:01:09.89000:01:09.900 Helmholtz double layer at the interface 00:01:11.06000:01:11.070 between the surface of a conductive 00:01:12.92000:01:12.930 electrode and an electrolyte the 00:01:14.92900:01:14.939 separation of charges of the order of a 00:01:16.76000:01:16.770 few angstroms 0.3 to 0.8 nanometers much 00:01:19.99900:01:20.009 smaller than in a conventional capacitor 00:01:22.60000:01:22.610 electrochemical pseudo capacitors use 00:01:24.64900:01:24.659 metal oxide or conducting polymer 00:01:26.33000:01:26.340 electrodes with a high amount of 00:01:27.62000:01:27.630 electrochemical pseudo capacitance 00:01:29.27000:01:29.280 additional to the double layer 00:01:30.35000:01:30.360 capacitance pseudo capacitance is 00:01:32.87000:01:32.880 achieved by faraday electron charge 00:01:34.67000:01:34.680 transfer with redox reactions 00:01:36.26000:01:36.270 interpolation or electro sorption hybrid 00:01:39.49900:01:39.509 capacitors such as the lithium ion 00:01:41.21000:01:41.220 capacitor use electrodes with differing 00:01:43.16000:01:43.170 characteristics one exhibiting mostly 00:01:44.96000:01:44.970 electrostatic capacitance and the other 00:01:46.60900:01:46.619 mostly electrochemical capacitance the 00:01:48.49900:01:48.509 electrolyte forms an ionic conductive 00:01:50.21000:01:50.220 connection between the two electrodes 00:01:51.71000:01:51.720 which distinguishes them from 00:01:52.81900:01:52.829 conventional electrolytic capacitors 00:01:54.59000:01:54.600 where a dielectric layer always exists 00:01:56.48000:01:56.490 and the so-called electrolyte eg 00:01:58.16000:01:58.170 manganese for oxide or conducting 00:01:59.95900:01:59.969 polymer is in fact part of the second 00:02:01.73000:02:01.740 electrode the cathode or more correctly 00:02:03.56000:02:03.570 the positive electrode 00:02:04.60000:02:04.610 super capacitors are polarized by design 00:02:07.24900:02:07.259 with asymmetric electrodes or for 00:02:08.99000:02:09.000 symmetric electrodes by a potential 00:02:10.60900:02:10.619 applied during manufacture 00:02:12.44000:02:12.450 you 00:02:16.60000:02:16.610 topic history development of the 00:02:22.69900:02:22.709 double-layer in pseudo capacitance 00:02:24.19900:02:24.209 models see double layer interfacial 00:02:30.40000:02:30.410 topic evolution of components in the 00:02:36.62000:02:36.630 early 1950s 00:02:37.88000:02:37.890 General Electric engineers began 00:02:39.38000:02:39.390 experimenting with porous carbon 00:02:40.85000:02:40.860 electrodes in the design of capacitors 00:02:42.74000:02:42.750 from the design of fuel cells and 00:02:44.15000:02:44.160 rechargeable batteries activated 00:02:46.52000:02:46.530 charcoal is an electrical conductor that 00:02:48.20000:02:48.210 is an extremely porous spongy form of 00:02:51.14000:02:51.150 carbon with a high specific surface area 00:02:53.12000:02:53.130 in 1957 H Becker developed our low 00:02:56.30000:02:56.310 voltage electrolytic capacitor with 00:02:58.16000:02:58.170 porous carbon electrodes he believed 00:03:01.01000:03:01.020 that the energy was stored as a charge 00:03:02.48000:03:02.490 in the carbon pauses in the pores of the 00:03:04.10000:03:04.110 etched foils of electrolytic capacitors 00:03:05.84000:03:05.850 because the double layer mechanism was 00:03:08.21000:03:08.220 not known by him at the time he wrote in 00:03:10.01000:03:10.020 the patent it is not known exactly what 00:03:12.08000:03:12.090 is taking place in the component if it 00:03:13.97000:03:13.980 is used for energy storage but it leads 00:03:15.92000:03:15.930 to an extremely high capacity General 00:03:19.76000:03:19.770 Electric did not immediately pursue this 00:03:21.44000:03:21.450 work in 1966 researchers at Standard Oil 00:03:24.38000:03:24.390 of Ohio 00:03:25.10000:03:25.110 soh IO developed another version of the 00:03:27.44000:03:27.450 component s electrical energy storage 00:03:29.84000:03:29.850 apparatus while working on experimental 00:03:32.51000:03:32.520 fuel cell designs the nature of 00:03:34.37000:03:34.380 electrochemical energy storage was not 00:03:36.35000:03:36.360 described in this patent even in 1970 00:03:39.44000:03:39.450 the electrochemical capacitor patented 00:03:41.44900:03:41.459 by Donald L booze was registered as an 00:03:43.22000:03:43.230 electrolytic capacitor with activated 00:03:44.81000:03:44.820 carbon electrodes early electrochemical 00:03:46.88000:03:46.890 capacitors used two aluminum foils 00:03:48.59000:03:48.600 covered with activated carbon the 00:03:50.54000:03:50.550 electrodes which were soaked in an 00:03:52.34000:03:52.350 electrolyte and separated by a thin 00:03:53.99000:03:54.000 porous insulator this design gave a 00:03:56.42000:03:56.430 capacitor with a capacitance on the 00:03:58.00900:03:58.019 order of one farad significantly higher 00:03:59.87000:03:59.880 than electrolytic capacitors of the same 00:04:01.58000:04:01.590 dimensions this basic mechanical design 00:04:04.28000:04:04.290 remains the basis of most 00:04:05.47900:04:05.489 electrochemical capacitors soh IO did 00:04:08.99000:04:09.000 not commercialize their invention 00:04:10.37000:04:10.380 licensing the technology to NEC 00:04:12.41000:04:12.420 who finally marketed the results s super 00:04:14.75000:04:14.760 capacitors in 1971 to provide backup 00:04:17.96000:04:17.970 power for computer memory between 1975 00:04:21.65000:04:21.660 and 1980 brian evans conway conducted 00:04:24.02000:04:24.030 extensive fundamental and development 00:04:25.67000:04:25.680 work on ruthenium oxide electrochemical 00:04:27.74000:04:27.750 capacitors in 1991 he described the 00:04:30.80000:04:30.810 difference between super capacitor and 00:04:33.29000:04:33.300 battery behaviour in electrochemical 00:04:36.29000:04:36.300 energy storage in 1999 he coined the 00:04:39.20000:04:39.210 term super capacitor to explain the 00:04:40.88000:04:40.890 increased capacitance by surface redox 00:04:43.04000:04:43.050 actions with faraday transfer between 00:04:45.05000:04:45.060 electrodes and ions his super capacitor 00:04:48.35000:04:48.360 stored electrical charge partially in 00:04:50.60000:04:50.610 the Helmholtz double layer and partially 00:04:52.21900:04:52.229 as a result of faraday Acree actions 00:04:53.74900:04:53.759 with pseudo capacitance charge transfer 00:04:56.68900:04:56.699 of electrons and protons between 00:04:58.21900:04:58.229 electrode and electrolyte the working 00:05:00.23000:05:00.240 mechanisms of pseudo capacitors are 00:05:01.87900:05:01.889 redox reactions intercalation and 00:05:03.74000:05:03.750 electro sorption adsorption on to a 00:05:05.45000:05:05.460 surface with his research 00:05:07.55000:05:07.560 Conway greatly expanded the knowledge of 00:05:09.23000:05:09.240 electrochemical capacitors the market 00:05:12.02000:05:12.030 expanded slowly that changed around 1978 00:05:14.80900:05:14.819 as Panasonic marketed its gold caps 00:05:16.70000:05:16.710 brand this product became a successful 00:05:19.10000:05:19.110 energy source for memory backup 00:05:20.65900:05:20.669 applications competition started only 00:05:22.96900:05:22.979 years later in 1987 ilknur Dyna cap s 00:05:27.05000:05:27.060 entered the market first generation Idi 00:05:29.30000:05:29.310 LCS had relatively high internal 00:05:31.01000:05:31.020 resistance that limited the discharge 00:05:32.60000:05:32.610 current they were used for low current 00:05:34.87900:05:34.889 applications such as powering SRA M 00:05:36.77000:05:36.780 chips or for data backup at the end of 00:05:39.55900:05:39.569 the 1980s improved electrode materials 00:05:41.89900:05:41.909 increased capacitance values at the same 00:05:44.45000:05:44.460 time the development of electrolytes 00:05:46.18900:05:46.199 with better conductivity lowered the 00:05:47.68900:05:47.699 equivalent series resistance ESR 00:05:49.51900:05:49.529 increasing charged discharge currents 00:05:51.35000:05:51.360 the first super capacitor with low 00:05:53.57000:05:53.580 internal resistance was developed in 00:05:55.18900:05:55.199 1982 for military applications through 00:05:57.46900:05:57.479 the Pinnacle Research Institute pre-and 00:05:59.26900:05:59.279 were marketed under the brand name pre 00:06:01.24900:06:01.259 ultracapacitor in 1992 Maxwell 00:06:04.61000:06:04.620 Laboratories later Maxwell Technologies 00:06:06.52900:06:06.539 took over this development Maxwell 00:06:08.83900:06:08.849 adopted the term ultracapacitor from pre 00:06:10.76000:06:10.770 and called them boost caps to underline 00:06:13.45900:06:13.469 their use for power applications since 00:06:16.27900:06:16.289 capacitors energy content increases with 00:06:18.29000:06:18.300 the square of the voltage researchers 00:06:19.87900:06:19.889 were looking for a way to increase the 00:06:21.29000:06:21.300 electrolytes breakdown voltage in 1994 00:06:24.61900:06:24.629 using the anode of a 200 volts high 00:06:26.54000:06:26.550 voltage tantalum electrolytic capacitor 00:06:28.43000:06:28.440 David a Evans developed an electrolytic 00:06:30.80000:06:30.810 hybrid electrochemical capacitor these 00:06:33.70900:06:33.719 capacitors combined features of 00:06:35.24000:06:35.250 electrolytic and electrochemical 00:06:36.68000:06:36.690 capacitors they combined the high 00:06:38.42000:06:38.430 dielectric strength of an anode from an 00:06:40.15900:06:40.169 electrolytic capacitor with the high 00:06:41.60000:06:41.610 capacitance of a pseudo capacitive metal 00:06:43.49000:06:43.500 oxide ruthenium IV oxide cathode from an 00:06:46.21900:06:46.229 electrochemical capacitor yielding a 00:06:47.99000:06:48.000 hybrid electrochemical capacitor Evans 00:06:50.60000:06:50.610 capacitors coin Kappa Tory had an energy 00:06:52.67000:06:52.680 content about a factor of five higher 00:06:54.32000:06:54.330 than a comparable tantalum electrolytic 00:06:56.06000:06:56.070 capacitor of the 00:06:56.87000:06:56.880 sighs they're high costs limited them to 00:06:59.36000:06:59.370 specific military applications recent 00:07:02.36000:07:02.370 developments include lithium-ion 00:07:03.71000:07:03.720 capacitors these hybrid capacitors were 00:07:06.11000:07:06.120 pioneered by fdk in 2007 they combine an 00:07:09.77000:07:09.780 electrostatic carbon electrode with a 00:07:11.54000:07:11.550 pre doped lithium ion electrochemical 00:07:13.46000:07:13.470 electrode this combination increases the 00:07:16.04000:07:16.050 capacitance value additionally the pre 00:07:18.29000:07:18.300 doping process lowers the anode 00:07:19.79000:07:19.800 potential and results in a high cell 00:07:21.38000:07:21.390 output voltage further increasing 00:07:23.00000:07:23.010 specific energy research departments 00:07:25.82000:07:25.830 active in many companies and 00:07:27.11000:07:27.120 universities are working to improve 00:07:28.43000:07:28.440 characteristics such as specific energy 00:07:30.56000:07:30.570 specific power and cycle stability and 00:07:32.78000:07:32.790 to reduce production costs 00:07:38.65900:07:38.669 topic basics 00:07:46.80000:07:46.810 topic basic design 00:07:51.99000:07:52.000 electrochemical capacitors super 00:07:54.16000:07:54.170 capacitors consists of two electrodes 00:07:55.90000:07:55.910 separated by anion permeable membrane 00:07:57.85000:07:57.860 separator and an electrolyte 00:07:59.38000:07:59.390 ionically connecting both electrodes 00:08:00.94000:08:00.950 when the electrodes are polarized by an 00:08:03.49000:08:03.500 applied voltage ions in the electrolyte 00:08:04.87000:08:04.880 form electric double layers of opposite 00:08:07.06000:08:07.070 polarity to the electrodes polarity for 00:08:09.61000:08:09.620 example positively polarized electrodes 00:08:11.68000:08:11.690 will have a layer of negative ions at 00:08:13.21000:08:13.220 the electrode electrolyte interface 00:08:14.83000:08:14.840 along with a charge balancing layer of 00:08:16.48000:08:16.490 positive ions absorbing onto the 00:08:17.98000:08:17.990 negative layer the opposite is true for 00:08:20.26000:08:20.270 the negatively polarized electrode 00:08:22.50000:08:22.510 additionally depending on electrode 00:08:24.61000:08:24.620 material and surface shape some ions may 00:08:26.56000:08:26.570 permeate the double layer becoming 00:08:28.03000:08:28.040 specifically adsorbed ions and 00:08:29.47000:08:29.480 contribute with pseudo capacitance to 00:08:31.06000:08:31.070 the total capacitance of the super 00:08:32.44000:08:32.450 capacitor 00:08:37.35000:08:37.360 topic capacitance distribution the two 00:08:43.63000:08:43.640 electrodes form a series circuit of two 00:08:45.49000:08:45.500 individual capacitors c1 and c2 the 00:08:48.55000:08:48.560 total capacitance C total is given by 00:08:50.53000:08:50.540 the formula C total equals C 1 C 2 C 1 00:09:02.91000:09:02.920 plus C 2 display style C underscore text 00:09:09.31000:09:09.320 total equals fracked C underscore 1 CDO 00:09:11.98000:09:11.990 TC underscore 2 C underscore 1 plus C 00:09:14.86000:09:14.870 underscore 2 super capacitors may have 00:09:17.76900:09:17.779 either symmetric or asymmetric 00:09:18.63900:09:18.649 electrodes symmetry implies that both 00:09:21.67000:09:21.680 electrodes have the same capacitance 00:09:23.31900:09:23.329 value yielding a total capacitance of 00:09:25.18000:09:25.190 half the value of each single electrode 00:09:26.88900:09:26.899 if C 1 00:09:31.35000:09:31.360 topic c2 then see total 00:09:37.99000:09:38.000 one half see one for asymmetric 00:09:40.15000:09:40.160 capacitors the total capacitance can be 00:09:42.28000:09:42.290 taken as that of the electrode with the 00:09:43.78000:09:43.790 smaller capacitance if c1 greater than 00:09:45.75900:09:45.769 greater than C 2 then C total 00:09:47.37900:09:47.389 approximately equals c2 00:09:53.38900:09:53.399 topic storage principles 00:09:58.81900:09:58.829 electrochemical capacitors use the 00:10:00.96000:10:00.970 double-layer effect to store electric 00:10:02.51900:10:02.529 energy 00:10:02.99900:10:03.009 however this double-layer has no 00:10:04.55900:10:04.569 conventional solid dielectric to 00:10:06.15000:10:06.160 separate the charges there are two 00:10:08.28000:10:08.290 storage principles in the electric 00:10:09.84000:10:09.850 double layer of the electrodes that 00:10:11.12900:10:11.139 contribute to the total capacitance of 00:10:12.80900:10:12.819 an electrochemical capacitor double 00:10:15.54000:10:15.550 layer capacitance electrostatic storage 00:10:17.30900:10:17.319 of the electrical energy achieved by 00:10:19.13900:10:19.149 separation of charge in a Helmholtz 00:10:20.61000:10:20.620 double layer pseudo capacitance 00:10:23.34000:10:23.350 electrochemical storage of the 00:10:24.90000:10:24.910 electrical energy achieved by faraday 00:10:26.73000:10:26.740 acree docs reactions with charge 00:10:28.11000:10:28.120 transfer both capacitances are only 00:10:29.85000:10:29.860 separable by measurement techniques the 00:10:32.30900:10:32.319 amount of charge stored per unit voltage 00:10:33.99000:10:34.000 in an electrochemical capacitor is 00:10:35.87900:10:35.889 primarily a function of the electrode 00:10:37.55900:10:37.569 size although the amount of capacitance 00:10:39.36000:10:39.370 of each storage principle can vary 00:10:40.86000:10:40.870 extremely practically these storage 00:10:43.59000:10:43.600 principles yield a capacitor with a 00:10:45.15000:10:45.160 capacitance value in the order of 1 to 00:10:46.86000:10:46.870 100 farad 00:10:51.94900:10:51.959 topic electrostatic double layer 00:10:54.62900:10:54.639 capacitance 00:10:58.14000:10:58.150 every electrochemical capacitor has two 00:11:00.51000:11:00.520 electrodes mechanically separated by a 00:11:02.40000:11:02.410 separator which are ionically connected 00:11:04.29000:11:04.300 to each other via the electrolyte the 00:11:06.07900:11:06.089 electrolyte is a mixture of positive and 00:11:08.34000:11:08.350 negative ions dissolved in a solvent 00:11:09.75000:11:09.760 such as water at each of the two 00:11:11.94000:11:11.950 electrode surfaces originates an area in 00:11:14.16000:11:14.170 which the liquid electrolyte contacts 00:11:15.72000:11:15.730 the conductive metallic surface of the 00:11:17.31000:11:17.320 electrode this interface forms a common 00:11:19.86000:11:19.870 boundary among two different phases of 00:11:21.48000:11:21.490 matter such as an insoluble solid 00:11:23.10000:11:23.110 electrode surface and an adjacent liquid 00:11:25.05000:11:25.060 electrolyte in this interface occurs a 00:11:27.36000:11:27.370 very special phenomenon of the double 00:11:29.01000:11:29.020 layer effect applying a voltage to an 00:11:30.78000:11:30.790 electrochemical capacitor causes both 00:11:32.64000:11:32.650 electrodes in the capacitor to generate 00:11:34.38000:11:34.390 electrical double layers these double 00:11:36.78000:11:36.790 layers consist of two layers of charges 00:11:38.57900:11:38.589 one electronic layer is in the surface 00:11:40.17000:11:40.180 lattice structure of the electrode and 00:11:41.82000:11:41.830 the other with opposite polarity emerges 00:11:43.80000:11:43.810 from dissolved in solvated ions in the 00:11:45.54000:11:45.550 electrolyte the two layers are separated 00:11:47.64000:11:47.650 by a mono layer of solvent molecules e.g 00:11:51.03000:11:51.040 for water is solvent by water molecules 00:11:52.74000:11:52.750 called in a Helmholtz plane IHP solvent 00:11:56.25000:11:56.260 molecules adhere by physical adsorption 00:11:57.75000:11:57.760 on the surface of the electrode and 00:11:59.55000:11:59.560 separate the oppositely polarized ions 00:12:01.32000:12:01.330 from each other and can be idealized as 00:12:03.06000:12:03.070 a molecular dielectric in the process 00:12:05.61000:12:05.620 there is no transfer of charge between 00:12:07.32000:12:07.330 electrode and electrolyte so the forces 00:12:09.21000:12:09.220 that cause the adhesion are not chemical 00:12:10.80000:12:10.810 bonds but physical forces eg 00:12:12.39000:12:12.400 electrostatic forces the adsorbed 00:12:14.85000:12:14.860 molecules are polarized but due to the 00:12:16.65000:12:16.660 lack of transfer of charge between 00:12:17.94000:12:17.950 electrolyte and electrode suffered no 00:12:19.80000:12:19.810 chemical changes the amount of charge in 00:12:22.65000:12:22.660 the electrode is matched by the 00:12:23.82000:12:23.830 magnitude of counter charges in outer 00:12:25.53000:12:25.540 Helmholtz plane OHP this double layer 00:12:28.41000:12:28.420 phenomena stores electrical charges as 00:12:30.30000:12:30.310 in a conventional capacitor the double 00:12:32.67000:12:32.680 layer charge forms a static electric 00:12:34.07900:12:34.089 field in the molecular layer of the 00:12:35.79000:12:35.800 solvent molecules in the ihp that 00:12:37.62000:12:37.630 corresponds to the strength of the 00:12:38.85000:12:38.860 applied voltage the double layer serves 00:12:41.55000:12:41.560 approximately as the dielectric layer in 00:12:43.35000:12:43.360 a conventional capacitor albeit with the 00:12:45.18000:12:45.190 thickness of a single molecule thus the 00:12:47.61000:12:47.620 standard formula for conventional plate 00:12:49.29000:12:49.300 capacitors can be used to calculate 00:12:50.97000:12:50.980 their capacitance C equals epsilon T 00:12:58.69900:12:58.709 display style C equals bar epsilon frac 00:13:01.68000:13:01.690 ad accordingly capacitance C is greatest 00:13:05.07000:13:05.080 in capacitors made from materials with a 00:13:06.99000:13:07.000 high permittivity epsilon large 00:13:08.57900:13:08.589 electrode plate surface areas a and 00:13:10.38000:13:10.390 small distance between plates D 00:13:12.11000:13:12.120 as a result double layer capacitors have 00:13:14.51000:13:14.520 much higher capacitance values than 00:13:16.10000:13:16.110 conventional capacitors arising from the 00:13:17.99000:13:18.000 extremely large surface area of 00:13:19.55000:13:19.560 activated carbon electrodes and the 00:13:21.17000:13:21.180 extremely thin double layer distance on 00:13:22.91000:13:22.920 the order of a few angstroms 0.3 to 0.8 00:13:25.79000:13:25.800 nanometers of order of the Debye length 00:13:27.29000:13:27.300 the main drawback of carbon electrodes 00:13:29.24000:13:29.250 of double layer SCS is small values of 00:13:31.28000:13:31.290 quantum capacitance which act in series 00:13:33.07900:13:33.089 with capacitance of ionic space charge 00:13:34.87000:13:34.880 therefore further increase of density of 00:13:37.43000:13:37.440 capacitance in s C's can be connected 00:13:39.14000:13:39.150 with increasing of quantum capacitance 00:13:40.46000:13:40.470 of carbon electrode nano structures the 00:13:42.65000:13:42.66000:13:44.24000:13:44.25000:13:46.10000:13:46.11000:13:47.75000:13:47.760 size the electrostatic storage of energy 00:13:50.60000:13:50.610 in the double layers is linear with 00:13:52.01000:13:52.020 respect to the stored charge and 00:13:53.39000:13:53.400 correspond to the concentration of the 00:13:55.04000:13:55.050 adsorbed ions also while charging 00:13:57.53000:13:57.540 conventional capacitors is transferred 00:13:59.39000:13:59.400 via electrons capacitance in double 00:14:01.28000:14:01.290 layer capacitors is related to the 00:14:02.75000:14:02.760 limited moving speed of ions in the 00:14:04.28000:14:04.290 electrolyte and the resistive porous 00:14:05.75000:14:05.760 structure of the electrodes since no 00:14:08.09000:14:08.100 chemical changes take place within the 00:14:09.76900:14:09.779 electrode or electrolyte charging and 00:14:11.54000:14:11.550 discharging electric double layers in 00:14:13.10000:14:13.110 principle is unlimited real super 00:14:15.41000:14:15.420 capacitors lifetimes are only limited by 00:14:17.24000:14:17.250 electrolyte evaporation effects 00:14:22.76900:14:22.779 topic electrochemical pseudo capacitance 00:14:29.01000:14:29.020 applying a voltage of the 00:14:30.30000:14:30.310 electrochemical capacitor terminals 00:14:32.04000:14:32.050 moves electrolyte ions to the opposite 00:14:33.75000:14:33.760 polarized electrode and forms a double 00:14:35.55000:14:35.560 layer in which a single layer of solvent 00:14:37.26000:14:37.270 molecules access separator pseudo 00:14:39.72000:14:39.730 capacitance can originate when 00:14:41.10000:14:41.110 specifically it's orbed ions out of the 00:14:42.66000:14:42.670 electrolyte pervade the double layer 00:14:44.15000:14:44.160 this pseudo capacitance stores 00:14:46.32000:14:46.330 electrical energy by means of reversible 00:14:48.24000:14:48.250 faraday Acree docks reactions on the 00:14:49.88900:14:49.899 surface of suitable electrodes in an 00:14:51.51000:14:51.520 electrochemical capacitor with an 00:14:53.04000:14:53.050 electric double layer pseudo capacitance 00:14:55.65000:14:55.660 is accompanied with an electron charge 00:14:57.21000:14:57.220 transfer between electrolyte and 00:14:58.68000:14:58.690 electrode coming from a desolated and 00:15:00.51000:15:00.520 absorbed ion whereby only one electron 00:15:02.22000:15:02.230 per charged unit is participating this 00:15:04.92000:15:04.930 Faraday Akash transfer originates by a 00:15:07.01900:15:07.029 very fast sequence of reversible redox 00:15:09.00000:15:09.010 intercalation or electro sorption 00:15:10.74000:15:10.750 processes the adsorbed ion has no 00:15:13.38000:15:13.390 chemical reaction with the atoms of the 00:15:14.94000:15:14.950 electrode no chemical bonds arise since 00:15:17.07000:15:17.080 only a charge transfer take place 00:15:18.84000:15:18.850 the electrons involved in the faraday 00:15:21.36000:15:21.370 processes are transferred to or from 00:15:23.13000:15:23.140 valence electron states orbitals of the 00:15:24.96000:15:24.970 redox electrode reagent they enter the 00:15:27.51000:15:27.520 negative electrode and flow through the 00:15:29.04000:15:29.050 external circuit to the positive 00:15:30.38900:15:30.399 electrode where a second double layer 00:15:31.94900:15:31.959 with an equal number of anions has 00:15:33.48000:15:33.490 formed the electrons reaching the 00:15:35.63900:15:35.649 positive electrode are not transferred 00:15:37.26000:15:37.270 to the anions forming the double layer 00:15:38.81900:15:38.829 instead they remain in the strongly 00:15:40.38000:15:40.390 ionized an electron hungry transition 00:15:43.44000:15:43.450 metal ions of the electrode surface as 00:15:45.30000:15:45.310 such the storage capacity of faraday 00:15:47.55000:15:47.560 extrude o capacitance is limited by the 00:15:49.26000:15:49.270 finite quantity of reagent in the 00:15:50.97000:15:50.980 available surface a Faraday extrude o 00:15:53.81900:15:53.829 capacitance only occurs together with a 00:15:55.56000:15:55.570 static double layer capacitance and it's 00:15:57.42000:15:57.430 magnitude may exceed the value of double 00:15:59.25000:15:59.260 layer capacitance for the same surface 00:16:00.75000:16:00.760 area by factor 100 depending on the 00:16:02.94000:16:02.950 nature and the structure of the 00:16:03.99000:16:04.000 electrode because all the pseudo 00:16:05.43000:16:05.440 capacitance reactions take place only 00:16:07.11000:16:07.120 with de solvated ions which are much 00:16:08.85000:16:08.860 smaller than solvated ions with their 00:16:10.53000:16:10.540 solvating shell the amount of pseudo 00:16:12.87000:16:12.880 capacitance has a linear function within 00:16:14.67000:16:14.680 narrow limits determined by the 00:16:15.96000:16:15.970 potential dependent degree of surface 00:16:17.69900:16:17.709 coverage of the absorbed and ions the 00:16:20.28000:16:20.290 ability of electrodes to accomplish 00:16:21.93000:16:21.940 pseudo capacitance effects by redox 00:16:23.67000:16:23.680 reactions intercalation or electro 00:16:25.59000:16:25.600 sorption strongly depends on the 00:16:26.97000:16:26.980 chemical affinity of electrode materials 00:16:28.82900:16:28.839 to the ions adsorbed on the electrode 00:16:30.42000:16:30.430 surface as well as on the structure and 00:16:32.06900:16:32.079 dimension of the electrode pores 00:16:33.76900:16:33.779 materials exhibiting redox behavior for 00:16:36.26900:16:36.279 uses electrodes in pseudo capacitors are 00:16:38.22000:16:38.230 transition metal oxides like our UO to 00:16:40.17000:16:40.180 iro 2 or manganese 4 oxide 00:16:42.81000:16:42.820 by doping in the conductive electrode 00:16:44.67000:16:44.680 material such as active carbon as well 00:16:46.41000:16:46.420 as conducting polymers such as poly 00:16:48.18000:16:48.190 aniline or derivatives of poly thiophene 00:16:50.16000:16:50.170 covering the electrode material the 00:16:52.65000:16:52.660 amount of electric charge stored in a 00:16:54.30000:16:54.310 pseudo capacitance is linearly 00:16:55.65000:16:55.660 proportional to the applied voltage the 00:16:58.08000:16:58.090 unit of pseudo capacitance is farad 00:17:03.89900:17:03.909 topic potential distribution 00:17:09.41900:17:09.429 conventional capacitors also known as 00:17:11.71000:17:11.720 electrostatic capacitors such as ceramic 00:17:13.89900:17:13.909 capacitors and film capacitors consists 00:17:15.78900:17:15.799 of two electrodes which are separated by 00:17:17.50000:17:17.510 a dielectric material when charged the 00:17:20.04900:17:20.059 energy has stored in a static electric 00:17:21.49000:17:21.500 field that permeates the dielectric 00:17:23.19900:17:23.209 between the electrodes the total energy 00:17:25.60000:17:25.610 increases with the amount of stored 00:17:27.22000:17:27.230 charge which in turn correlates linearly 00:17:29.02000:17:29.030 with the potential voltage between the 00:17:30.73000:17:30.740 plates the maximum potential difference 00:17:33.19000:17:33.200 between the plates the maximal voltage 00:17:34.89900:17:34.909 is limited by the dielectrics breakdown 00:17:36.73000:17:36.740 field strength the same static storage 00:17:39.13000:17:39.140 also applies for electrolytic capacitors 00:17:41.23000:17:41.240 in which most of the potential decreases 00:17:42.97000:17:42.980 over the anodes thin oxide layer the 00:17:45.37000:17:45.380 somewhat resistive liquid electrolyte 00:17:46.96000:17:46.970 cathode accounts for a small decrease of 00:17:48.90900:17:48.919 potential for wet electrolytic 00:17:51.31000:17:51.320 capacitors while electrolytic capacitors 00:17:53.20000:17:53.210 with solid conductive polymer 00:17:54.49000:17:54.500 electrolyte this voltage drop is 00:17:55.93000:17:55.940 negligible in contrast electrochemical 00:17:58.99000:17:59.000 capacitors super capacitors consists of 00:18:01.06000:18:01.070 two electrodes separated by anion 00:18:02.83000:18:02.840 permeable membrane separator and 00:18:04.51000:18:04.520 electrically connected via an 00:18:05.83000:18:05.840 electrolyte energy storage occurs within 00:18:08.32000:18:08.330 the double layers of both electrodes as 00:18:10.00000:18:10.010 a mixture of a double layer capacitance 00:18:11.59000:18:11.600 and pseudo capacitance when both 00:18:13.75000:18:13.760 electrodes have approximately the same 00:18:15.49000:18:15.500 resistance internal resistance the 00:18:17.16900:18:17.179 potential of the capacitor decreases 00:18:18.82000:18:18.830 symmetrically over both double layers 00:18:20.32000:18:20.330 whereby a voltage drop across the 00:18:22.00000:18:22.010 equivalent series resistance ESR of the 00:18:24.13000:18:24.140 electrolyte is achieved for asymmetrical 00:18:26.74000:18:26.750 super capacitors like hybrid capacitors 00:18:28.57000:18:28.580 the voltage drop between the electrodes 00:18:30.22000:18:30.230 could be asymmetrical the maximum 00:18:32.40900:18:32.419 potential across the capacitor the 00:18:33.97000:18:33.980 maximal voltage is limited by the 00:18:35.59000:18:35.600 electrolyte decomposition voltage both 00:18:38.44000:18:38.450 electrostatic and electrochemical energy 00:18:40.41900:18:40.429 storage in super capacitors are linear 00:18:42.37000:18:42.380 with respect to the stored charge just 00:18:43.96000:18:43.970 as in conventional capacitors the 00:18:46.18000:18:46.190 voltage between the capacitor terminals 00:18:47.91900:18:47.929 is linear with respect to the amount of 00:18:49.51000:18:49.520 stored energy such linear voltage 00:18:51.88000:18:51.890 gradient differs from rechargeable 00:18:53.38000:18:53.390 electrochemical batteries in which the 00:18:55.09000:18:55.100 voltage between the terminals remains 00:18:56.64900:18:56.659 independent of the amount of stored 00:18:58.12000:18:58.130 energy providing a relatively constant 00:18:59.79900:18:59.809 voltage 00:19:04.85000:19:04.860 topic comparison with other storage 00:19:07.53000:19:07.540 technologies super capacitors compete 00:19:13.11000:19:13.120 with electrolytic capacitors and 00:19:14.58000:19:14.590 rechargeable batteries especially 00:19:16.08000:19:16.090 lithium-ion batteries the following 00:19:18.45000:19:18.460 table compares the major parameters of 00:19:20.25000:19:20.260 the three main super capacitor families 00:19:21.99000:19:22.00000:19:23.40000:19:23.410 batteries electrolytic capacitors 00:19:26.01000:19:26.020 feature unlimited charge/discharge 00:19:27.21000:19:27.220 cycles high dielectric strength up to 00:19:29.61000:19:29.620 550 volts and good frequency responses 00:19:32.16000:19:32.170 AC resistance in the lower frequency 00:19:33.60000:19:33.610 range super capacitors can store 10 to 00:19:36.57000:19:36.580 100 times more energy than electrolytic 00:19:38.61000:19:38.620 capacitors but they do not support AC 00:19:40.26000:19:40.270 applications with regards to 00:19:42.72000:19:42.730 rechargeable batteries super capacitors 00:19:44.66900:19:44.679 feature higher peak currents low cost 00:19:46.40900:19:46.419 per cycle no danger of overcharging good 00:19:48.57000:19:48.580 reversibility non corrosive electrolyte 00:19:50.58000:19:50.590 and low material toxicity while 00:19:52.14000:19:52.150 batteries offer lower purchase cost 00:19:53.78900:19:53.799 stable voltage under discharge but they 00:19:55.71000:19:55.720 require complex electronic control in 00:19:57.65900:19:57.669 switching equipment with consequent 00:19:59.22000:19:59.230 energy loss and spark hazard given a 00:20:00.84000:20:00.850 short 00:20:05.85000:20:05.860 topic styles super capacitors are made 00:20:12.37000:20:12.380 in different styles such as flat with a 00:20:14.02000:20:14.030 single pair of electrodes round in a 00:20:15.76000:20:15.770 cylindrical case or stacked in a 00:20:17.23000:20:17.240 rectangular case because they cover a 00:20:19.60000:20:19.610 broad range of capacitance values the 00:20:21.37000:20:21.380 size of the cases can vary different 00:20:24.55000:20:24.560 styles of super capacitors 00:20:29.63900:20:29.649 topic construction details construction 00:20:36.07000:20:36.080 details of wound and stacked super 00:20:37.60000:20:37.610 capacitors with activated carbon 00:20:39.15900:20:39.169 electrodes super capacitors are 00:20:41.64900:20:41.659 constructed with two metal foils current 00:20:43.45000:20:43.460 collectors each coated with an electrode 00:20:45.12900:20:45.139 material such as activated carbon which 00:20:47.01900:20:47.029 serve as the power connection between 00:20:48.46000:20:48.470 the electrode material and the external 00:20:50.16900:20:50.179 terminals of the capacitor specifically 00:20:52.77900:20:52.789 to the electrode material is a very 00:20:54.46000:20:54.470 large surface area in this example the 00:20:56.76900:20:56.779 activated carbon is electro chemically 00:20:58.57000:20:58.580 etched so that the surface of the 00:20:59.88900:20:59.899 material is about a factor 100,000 00:21:02.04900:21:02.059 larger than the smooth surface the 00:21:04.06000:21:04.070 electrodes are kept apart by anion 00:21:05.79900:21:05.809 permeable membrane separator used as an 00:21:07.96000:21:07.970 insulator to protect the electrodes 00:21:09.48900:21:09.499 against short circuits this construction 00:21:11.85900:21:11.869 is subsequently rolled or folded into a 00:21:13.74900:21:13.759 cylindrical or rectangular shape and can 00:21:15.63900:21:15.649 be stacked in an aluminum can or in 00:21:17.25900:21:17.269 adaptable rectangular housing then the 00:21:19.72000:21:19.730 cell is impregnated with a liquid or 00:21:21.34000:21:21.350 viscous electrolyte of organic or 00:21:22.89900:21:22.909 aqueous type the electrolyte and ionic 00:21:25.60000:21:25.610 conductor enters the pores of the 00:21:26.91900:21:26.929 electrodes and serves as the conductive 00:21:28.57000:21:28.580 connection between the electrodes across 00:21:30.19000:21:30.200 the separator finally the housing is 00:21:32.59000:21:32.600 hermetically sealed to ensure stable 00:21:34.02900:21:34.039 behavior over the specified lifetime 00:21:40.71000:21:40.720 topic supercapacitor types 00:21:46.44000:21:46.450 electrical energy is stored in super 00:21:48.64000:21:48.650 capacitors via two storage principles 00:21:50.47000:21:50.480 static double layer capacitance and 00:21:52.18000:21:52.190 electrochemical pseudo capacitance and 00:21:53.98000:21:53.990 the distribution of the two types of 00:21:55.42000:21:55.430 capacitance depends on the material and 00:21:57.19000:21:57.200 structure of the electrodes there are 00:21:59.35000:21:59.360 three types of super capacitors based on 00:22:01.15000:22:01.160 storage principle double layer 00:22:03.46000:22:03.470 capacitors a VLC's with activated carbon 00:22:05.98000:22:05.990 electrodes or derivatives with much 00:22:07.45000:22:07.460 higher electrostatic double layer 00:22:08.95000:22:08.960 capacitance than electrochemical pseudo 00:22:10.78000:22:10.790 capacitance pseudo capacitors with 00:22:13.42000:22:13.430 transition metal oxide or conducting 00:22:15.19000:22:15.200 polymer electrodes with a high 00:22:16.39000:22:16.40000:22:18.45000:22:18.460 hybrid capacitors with asymmetric 00:22:20.74000:22:20.750 electrodes one of which exhibits mostly 00:22:22.57000:22:22.580 electrostatic and the other mostly 00:22:24.10000:22:24.110 electrochemical capacitance such as 00:22:25.81000:22:25.820 lithium-ion capacitors may cause double 00:22:27.79000:22:27.800 layer capacitance and pseudo capacitance 00:22:29.56000:22:29.570 both contribute inseparably to the total 00:22:31.36000:22:31.370 capacitance value of an electrochemical 00:22:32.86000:22:32.870 capacitor a correct description of these 00:22:34.87000:22:34.880 capacitors only can be given under the 00:22:36.49000:22:36.500 generic term the concepts of super Kappa 00:22:39.22000:22:39.230 tree and super car battery have been 00:22:40.63000:22:40.640 recently proposed to better represent 00:22:41.95000:22:41.960 those hybrid devices that behave more 00:22:43.93000:22:43.940 like the super capacitor and the 00:22:45.19000:22:45.200 rechargeable battery respectively the 00:22:47.08000:22:47.090 capacitance value of a super capacitor 00:22:48.85000:22:48.860 is determined by two storage principles 00:22:51.00000:22:51.010 double layer capacitance electrostatic 00:22:53.68000:22:53.690 storage of the electrical energy 00:22:54.82000:22:54.830 achieved by separation of charge in a 00:22:56.77000:22:56.78000:22:57.97000:22:57.980 between the surface of a conductor 00:22:59.77000:22:59.780 electrode and an electrolytic solution 00:23:01.18000:23:01.190 electrolyte the separation of charge 00:23:03.70000:23:03.710 distance in a double layer is on the 00:23:05.29000:23:05.300 order of a few angstroms 0.3 to 0.8 00:23:08.14000:23:08.150 nanometers and is static in origin 00:23:10.29000:23:10.300 pseudo capacitance electrochemical 00:23:12.76000:23:12.77000:23:13.99000:23:14.000 achieved by redox reactions electro 00:23:16.30000:23:16.310 sorption or intercalation on the surface 00:23:18.16000:23:18.170 of the electrode by specifically its 00:23:19.78000:23:19.790 salt ions that results in a reversible 00:23:21.61000:23:21.620 faraday exchange transfusion sanshiro 00:23:25.27000:23:25.280 capacitance both contribute inseparably 00:23:27.01000:23:27.020 to the total capacitance value of a 00:23:28.66000:23:28.670 super capacitor however the ratio of the 00:23:31.51000:23:31.520 two can vary greatly depending on the 00:23:33.25000:23:33.260 design of the electrodes and the 00:23:34.51000:23:34.520 composition of the electrolyte pseudo 00:23:36.82000:23:36.830 capacitance can increase the capacitance 00:23:38.62000:23:38.630 value by as much as a factor of 10 over 00:23:40.48000:23:40.490 that of the double layer by itself 00:23:41.89000:23:41.900 electric double layer capacitors EDL C 00:23:44.26000:23:44.270 are electrochemical capacitors in which 00:23:46.06000:23:46.070 energy storage predominantly is achieved 00:23:47.95000:23:47.960 by double layer capacitance in the past 00:23:50.44000:23:50.450 all electrochemical capacitors were 00:23:52.27000:23:52.280 called double layer capacitors 00:23:54.54000:23:54.550 contemporary usage sees double layer 00:23:56.59000:23:56.600 capacitors together with pseudo 00:23:58.09000:23:58.100 capacitors as part of a larger family of 00:24:00.31000:24:00.320 chemical capacitors called super 00:24:02.01900:24:02.029 capacitors they are also known as ultra 00:24:04.57000:24:04.580 capacitors 00:24:09.50000:24:09.510 topic materials the properties of super 00:24:16.08000:24:16.090 capacitors come from the interaction of 00:24:17.70000:24:17.710 their internal materials especially the 00:24:20.31000:24:20.320 combination of electrode material and 00:24:22.08000:24:22.090 type of electrolyte determined the 00:24:23.43000:24:23.440 functionality and thermal and electrical 00:24:25.11000:24:25.120 characteristics of the capacitors 00:24:31.12000:24:31.130 topic electrodes supercapacitor 00:24:37.19000:24:37.200 electrodes are generally thin coatings 00:24:38.81000:24:38.820 applied and electrically connected to a 00:24:40.37000:24:40.380 conductive metallic current collector 00:24:42.40000:24:42.410 electrodes must have good conductivity 00:24:44.72000:24:44.730 high temperature stability long-term 00:24:46.49000:24:46.500 chemical stability inertness high 00:24:48.20000:24:48.210 corrosion resistance and high surface 00:24:49.82000:24:49.830 areas per unit volume and mass other 00:24:52.34000:24:52.350 requirements include environmental 00:24:54.05000:24:54.060 friendliness and low cost the amount of 00:24:56.75000:24:56.760 double-layer as well as pseudo 00:24:58.07000:24:58.080 capacitance stored per unit voltage in a 00:24:59.93000:24:59.940 super capacitor is predominantly a 00:25:01.49000:25:01.500 function of the electrode surface area 00:25:03.29000:25:03.300 therefore super capacitor electrodes are 00:25:06.02000:25:06.030 typically made of porous spongy material 00:25:07.64000:25:07.650 with an extraordinarily high specific 00:25:09.62000:25:09.630 surface area such as activated carbon 00:25:11.95000:25:11.960 additionally the ability of the 00:25:13.82000:25:13.830 electrode material to perform Faraday 00:25:15.62000:25:15.630 exchange transfusion Hans's the total 00:25:17.45000:25:17.460 capacitance generally the smaller the 00:25:20.00000:25:20.010 electrodes pause the greater the 00:25:21.41000:25:21.420 capacitance and specific energy however 00:25:24.02000:25:24.030 smaller pores increase equivalent series 00:25:25.97000:25:25.980 resistance ESR and decreased specific 00:25:28.13000:25:28.140 power applications with high peak 00:25:30.41000:25:30.420 currents require larger pores and low 00:25:32.12000:25:32.130 internal losses while applications 00:25:33.80000:25:33.810 requiring high specific energy needs 00:25:35.57000:25:35.580 small pores topic electrodes for EDL C's 00:25:39.89000:25:39.900 the most commonly used electrode 00:25:41.42000:25:41.430 material for super capacitors is carbon 00:25:43.37000:25:43.380 in various manifestations such as 00:25:44.93000:25:44.940 activated carbon AC carbon fibre cloth 00:25:47.33000:25:47.340 AFC carbide derived carbon CD C carbon 00:25:50.66000:25:50.670 aerogel graphite graphene graphene and 00:25:52.79000:25:52.800 carbon nanotubes CMT's carbon based 00:25:55.01000:25:55.020 electrodes exhibit predominantly static 00:25:56.90000:25:56.910 double layer capacitance even though a 00:25:58.46000:25:58.470 small amount of pseudo capacitance may 00:26:00.23000:26:00.240 also be present depending on the pore 00:26:01.85000:26:01.860 size distribution pore sizes in carbons 00:26:04.73000:26:04.740 typically range from micro pores less 00:26:06.53000:26:06.540 than 2 nanometers to mezzo pores to 250 00:26:08.90000:26:08.910 nanometers but only micro pores 00:26:14.62000:26:14.630 topic activated carbon 00:26:19.60000:26:19.610 activated carbon a/c was the first 00:26:21.94000:26:21.950 material chosen for a dlc electrodes 00:26:24.18000:26:24.190 even though its electrical conductivity 00:26:26.14000:26:26.150 is approximately 0.003 percent that of 00:26:29.41000:26:29.420 metals 1250 to 2000s per meter is 00:26:32.77000:26:32.780 sufficient for super capacitors 00:26:34.24000:26:34.250 activated carbon is an extremely porous 00:26:36.13000:26:36.140 form of carbon with a high specific 00:26:37.87000:26:37.880 surface area a common approximation is 00:26:40.30000:26:40.310 that one gram 0.03 5 ounces a pencil 00:26:43.30000:26:43.310 eraser sized amount has a surface area 00:26:45.16000:26:45.170 of roughly 1000 to 3000 square meters 00:26:47.40000:26:47.410 11,000 to 32,000 square feet about the 00:26:50.68000:26:50.690 size of 4 to 12 tennis courts the bulk 00:26:53.35000:26:53.360 form used in electrodes is low density 00:26:55.06000:26:55.070 with many pores giving high double layer 00:26:57.04000:26:57.050 capacitance solid activated carbon also 00:27:00.22000:27:00.230 termed consolidated amorphous carbon CAC 00:27:02.44000:27:02.450 is the most used electrode material for 00:27:04.36000:27:04.370 super capacitors and may be cheaper than 00:27:05.98000:27:05.990 other carbon derivatives it is produced 00:27:08.32000:27:08.330 from activated carbon powder pressed 00:27:09.97000:27:09.980 into the desired shape forming a block 00:27:11.68000:27:11.690 with a wide distribution of pore sizes 00:27:13.33000:27:13.340 an electrode with a surface area of 00:27:15.85000:27:15.860 about 1000 square meters per gram 00:27:17.83000:27:17.840 results in a typical double layer 00:27:19.27000:27:19.280 capacitance of about 10 microfarads per 00:27:21.37000:27:21.380 square centimeter and a specific 00:27:22.60000:27:22.610 capacitance of 100 F per gram as of 2010 00:27:26.50000:27:26.510 virtually all commercial super 00:27:27.97000:27:27.980 capacitors use powdered activated carbon 00:27:29.95000:27:29.960 made from coconut shells coconut shells 00:27:32.56000:27:32.570 produce activated carbon with more micro 00:27:34.60000:27:34.610 pores than this charcoal made from wood 00:27:40.22000:27:40.230 topic activated carbon fibers 00:27:45.64000:27:45.650 activated carbon fibers ACF are produced 00:27:48.31000:27:48.320 from activated carbon and have a typical 00:27:50.11000:27:50.120 diameter of 10 micrometers they can have 00:27:52.78000:27:52.790 micro pores with a very narrow pore size 00:27:54.76000:27:54.770 distribution that can be readily 00:27:56.11000:27:56.120 controlled the surface area of a CF 00:27:58.72000:27:58.730 woven into a textile is about 2500 00:28:01.48000:28:01.490 square meters per gram advantages of a 00:28:04.15000:28:04.160 CF electrodes include low electrical 00:28:06.13000:28:06.140 resistance along the fiber axis and good 00:28:07.87000:28:07.880 contact to the collector as for 00:28:09.31000:28:09.320 activated carbon ACF electrodes exhibit 00:28:11.65000:28:11.660 predominantly double layer capacitance 00:28:13.21000:28:13.220 with a small amount of pseudo 00:28:14.47000:28:14.480 capacitance due to their micro pores 00:28:20.20000:28:20.210 topic carbon aerogel carbon aerogel is a 00:28:26.42000:28:26.430 highly porous synthetic ultralight 00:28:28.22000:28:28.230 material derived from an organic gel in 00:28:30.17000:28:30.180 which the liquid component of the gel 00:28:31.61000:28:31.620 has been replaced with a gas aerogel 00:28:34.40000:28:34.410 electrodes are made via pyrolysis of 00:28:36.23000:28:36.240 resource in all formaldehyde aerogels 00:28:38.06000:28:38.070 and are more conductive than most 00:28:39.26000:28:39.270 activated carbons they enable thin and 00:28:41.90000:28:41.910 mechanically stable electrodes with a 00:28:43.52000:28:43.530 thickness in the range of several 00:28:44.75000:28:44.760 hundred micrometers micro m and with 00:28:46.79000:28:46.800 uniform pore size aerogel electrodes 00:28:49.61000:28:49.620 also provide mechanical and vibration 00:28:51.59000:28:51.600 stability for super capacitors used in 00:28:53.42000:28:53.430 high vibration environments researchers 00:28:56.27000:28:56.280 have created a carbon aerogel electrode 00:28:58.16000:28:58.170 with gravimetric densities of about 400 00:29:00.29000:29:00.300 to 1200 square meters per gram and 00:29:02.42000:29:02.430 volumetric capacitance of 104 F per CC 00:29:05.39000:29:05.400 yielding a specific energy of 325 kilo 00:29:08.39000:29:08.400 joules per kilogram 90 watt hours per 00:29:10.28000:29:10.290 kilogram and specific power of 20 with G 00:29:12.71000:29:12.720 standard aerogel electrodes exhibit 00:29:14.63000:29:14.64000:29:16.54000:29:16.550 aerogel electrodes that incorporate 00:29:18.74000:29:18.750 composite material can add a high amount 00:29:20.51000:29:20.520 of pseudo capacitance 00:29:25.53000:29:25.540 topic carbide derived carbon carbide 00:29:31.57000:29:31.580 derived carbon CDC also known as 00:29:33.91000:29:33.920 Chernobyl nanoporous carbon is a family 00:29:35.98000:29:35.990 of carbon materials derived from carbide 00:29:37.93000:29:37.940 precursors such as binary silicon 00:29:39.76000:29:39.770 carbide and titanium carbide that are 00:29:41.62000:29:41.630 transformed into pure carbon via 00:29:43.15000:29:43.160 physical eg thermal decomposition or 00:29:45.37000:29:45.380 chemical eg halogenation processes 00:29:47.74000:29:47.750 carbide derived carbons can exhibit high 00:29:49.72000:29:49.730 surface area and tunable pore diameters 00:29:51.76000:29:51.770 from micro pores to mezzo pores to 00:29:53.53000:29:53.540 maximize ion confinement increasing 00:29:55.42000:29:55.430 pseudo capacitance by a Faraday cage to 00:29:57.43000:29:57.440 adsorption treatment CDC electrodes with 00:30:00.37000:30:00.380 tailored poor design offer as much as 75 00:30:02.59000:30:02.600 percent greater specific energy than 00:30:04.27000:30:04.280 conventional activated carbons as of 00:30:07.09000:30:07.100 2015 a cdc supercapacitor offered a 00:30:09.79000:30:09.800 specific energy of 10.1 watt hours per 00:30:11.89000:30:11.900 kilogram 3500 f capacitance and over 1 00:30:15.04000:30:15.050 million charge/discharge cycles 00:30:20.54000:30:20.550 topic graphene graphene is a one atom 00:30:26.37000:30:26.380 thick sheet of graphite with atoms 00:30:27.84000:30:27.850 arranged in a regular hexagonal pattern 00:30:29.67000:30:29.680 also called nano composite paper 00:30:31.88000:30:31.890 graphene has a theoretical specific 00:30:34.23000:30:34.240 surface area of two thousand six hundred 00:30:36.03000:30:36.040 and thirty square meters per gram which 00:30:37.80000:30:37.810 can theoretically lead to a capacitance 00:30:39.45000:30:39.460 of 550 F per gram in addition an 00:30:42.63000:30:42.640 advantage of graphene over activated 00:30:44.43000:30:44.440 carbon is it's higher electrical 00:30:45.78000:30:45.790 conductivity as of 2012 a new 00:30:48.30000:30:48.310 development used graphene sheets 00:30:49.74000:30:49.750 directly as electrodes without 00:30:51.18000:30:51.190 collectors for portable applications in 00:30:52.98000:30:52.990 one environment a graphene based 00:30:54.51000:30:54.520 supercapacitor uses curved graphene 00:30:56.34000:30:56.350 sheets that do not stack face-to-face 00:30:57.99000:30:58.000 forming mezzo pores that are accessible 00:30:59.85000:30:59.860 to and wettable by ionic electrolytes at 00:31:01.71000:31:01.720 voltages up to 4 V a specific energy of 00:31:03.90000:31:03.910 eighty five point six watt hours per 00:31:05.40000:31:05.410 kilogram three hundred and eight kilo 00:31:07.23000:31:07.240 joules per kilogram is obtained at room 00:31:09.06000:31:09.070 temperature equalling that of a 00:31:10.26000:31:10.270 conventional nickel metal hydride 00:31:11.34000:31:11.350 battery but with 100 1000 times greater 00:31:14.13000:31:14.140 specific power the two-dimensional 00:31:15.87000:31:15.880 structure of graphene improves charging 00:31:17.55000:31:17.560 and discharging charge carriers in 00:31:19.77000:31:19.780 vertically oriented sheets can quickly 00:31:21.39000:31:21.400 migrate into or out of the deeper 00:31:22.92000:31:22.930 structures of the electrode thus 00:31:24.27000:31:24.280 increasing currents such capacitors may 00:31:26.85000:31:26.860 be suitable for 100 and 120th silver 00:31:29.22000:31:29.230 Hertz filter applications which are 00:31:30.81000:31:30.820 unreachable for super capacitors using 00:31:32.61000:31:32.620 other carbon materials 00:31:37.68000:31:37.690 topic carbon nanotubes carbon nanotubes 00:31:43.96000:31:43.970 CNTs also called Bucky tubes are carbon 00:31:46.42000:31:46.430 molecules with a cylindrical nano 00:31:47.86000:31:47.870 structure they have a hollow structure 00:31:50.05000:31:50.060 with walls formed by one atom thick 00:31:51.55000:31:51.560 sheets of graphite these sheets are 00:31:53.80000:31:53.810 rolled it's specific in discrete chiral 00:31:55.93000:31:55.940 angles and the combination of chiral 00:31:58.15000:31:58.160 Hengel and radius controls properties 00:31:59.86000:31:59.870 such as electrical conductivity 00:32:01.06000:32:01.070 electrolyte wettability anion access 00:32:03.81000:32:03.820 nanotubes are categorized as single 00:32:06.01000:32:06.020 walled nanotubes SW NTS or multi walled 00:32:08.53000:32:08.540 nanotubes MW MTS the latter have one or 00:32:11.83000:32:11.840 more outer tubes successively enveloping 00:32:13.63000:32:13.640 a SW MT much like the Russian matryoshka 00:32:15.94000:32:15.950 dolls SW NTS have diameters ranging 00:32:19.18000:32:19.190 between 1 and 3 nanometers MW NTS have 00:32:22.69000:32:22.700 thicker coaxial walls separated by 00:32:24.55000:32:24.560 spacing 0.3 4 nanometers that is close 00:32:27.25000:32:27.260 to graphene's inter layer distance 00:32:29.31000:32:29.320 nanotubes can grow vertically on the 00:32:31.42000:32:31.430 collector substrate such as a silicon 00:32:33.16000:32:33.170 wafer typical lengths are 20 to 100 00:32:35.86000:32:35.870 micrometers carbon nanotubes can greatly 00:32:37.90000:32:37.910 improve capacitor performance due to the 00:32:39.79000:32:39.800 highly wettable surface area and high 00:32:41.44000:32:41.450 conductivity RSW nt-based super 00:32:43.78000:32:43.790 capacitor with aqueous electrolyte was 00:32:45.46000:32:45.470 systematically studied at university of 00:32:47.29000:32:47.300 delaware in professor ping ching ways 00:32:49.57000:32:49.580 group Leal for the first time discovered 00:32:52.18000:32:52.190 that the ion size effect and the 00:32:53.53000:32:53.540 electrode electrolyte wettability are 00:32:55.21000:32:55.220 the dominant factors affecting the 00:32:56.50000:32:56.510 electrochemical behavior of flexible SW 00:32:58.84000:32:58.850 CNT super capacitors in different 1 00:33:00.79000:33:00.800 molar aqueous electrolytes with 00:33:02.26000:33:02.270 different anions and cations the 00:33:04.48000:33:04.490 experimental results also showed for 00:33:06.31000:33:06.320 flexible super capacitor that it is 00:33:07.81000:33:07.820 suggested to put enough pressure between 00:33:09.22000:33:09.230 the two electrodes to improve the 00:33:10.75000:33:10.760 aqueous electrolyte CNT super capacitor 00:33:13.00000:33:13.010 CNTs can store about the same charge as 00:33:15.19000:33:15.200 activated carbon per unit surface area 00:33:16.93000:33:16.940 but nanotubes surface is arranged in a 00:33:19.12000:33:19.130 regular pattern providing greater 00:33:20.62000:33:20.630 wettability 00:33:21.51000:33:21.520 SW NTS have a high theoretical specific 00:33:24.46000:33:24.470 surface area of 1315 square meters per 00:33:27.64000:33:27.650 gram while that 4 MW n T's is lower and 00:33:30.04000:33:30.050 is determined by the diameter of the 00:33:31.54000:33:31.550 tubes and degree of nesting compared 00:33:33.28000:33:33.290 with a surface area of about 3000 square 00:33:35.47000:33:35.480 meters per gram of activated carbons 00:33:37.35000:33:37.360 nevertheless CNTs have higher 00:33:39.76000:33:39.770 capacitance than activated carbon 00:33:41.41000:33:41.420 electrodes eg 102 F per gram 4 MW n TS 00:33:44.83000:33:44.840 and 108 EF per gram for SW n TS MW NTS 00:33:48.37000:33:48.380 have mezzo pores that allow for easy 00:33:49.93000:33:49.940 access of 00:33:50.60000:33:50.610 at the electrode electrolyte interface 00:33:52.37000:33:52.380 as the pore size approaches the size of 00:33:54.95000:33:54.960 the ion solvation shell the solvent 00:33:56.75000:33:56.760 molecules are partially stripped 00:33:57.91900:33:57.929 resulting in larger ionic packing 00:33:59.77900:33:59.789 density and increased Faraday extort 00:34:02.23000:34:02.240 however the considerable volume change 00:34:04.73000:34:04.740 during repeated intercalation and 00:34:06.32000:34:06.330 depletion decreases their mechanical 00:34:07.85000:34:07.860 stability to this end research to 00:34:10.25000:34:10.260 increase surface area mechanical 00:34:11.96000:34:11.970 strength electrical conductivity and 00:34:13.55000:34:13.560 chemical stability is ongoing 00:34:19.28000:34:19.290 topic electrodes for sudo capacitors 00:34:24.89000:34:24.900 manganese for oxide and are you--oh to a 00:34:27.42000:34:27.430 typical materials used as electrodes for 00:34:29.46000:34:29.470 pseudo capacitors since they have the 00:34:31.05000:34:31.060 electrochemical signature of a 00:34:32.46000:34:32.470 capacitive electrode linear dependence 00:34:34.26000:34:34.270 on current versus voltage curve as well 00:34:36.12000:34:36.130 as exhibiting faraday behaviour 00:34:37.94000:34:37.950 additionally the charge storage 00:34:39.78000:34:39.790 originates from electron transfer 00:34:41.37000:34:41.380 mechanisms rather than accumulation of 00:34:43.11000:34:43.120 ions in the electrochemical double layer 00:34:45.05000:34:45.060 pseudo capacitors were created through 00:34:47.34000:34:47.350 faraday acree DOX reactions that occur 00:34:49.08000:34:49.090 within the active electrode materials 00:34:50.88000:34:50.890 more research was focused on transition 00:34:53.61000:34:53.620 metal oxides such as manganese 4 oxide 00:34:55.71000:34:55.720 since transition metal oxides have a 00:34:57.39000:34:57.400 lower cost compared to noble metal 00:34:59.04000:34:59.050 oxides such as our uo 2 moreover the 00:35:02.10000:35:02.110 charge storage mechanisms of transition 00:35:03.96000:35:03.970 metal oxides are based predominantly on 00:35:05.73000:35:05.740 pseudo capacitance two mechanisms of 00:35:08.31000:35:08.320 manganese 4 oxide charge storage 00:35:09.99000:35:10.000 behavior were introduced the first 00:35:11.97000:35:11.980 mechanism implies the interpolation of 00:35:13.86000:35:13.870 protons H+ or alkali metal cations see 00:35:16.74000:35:16.750 plus in the bulk of the material upon 00:35:18.36000:35:18.370 reduction followed by DN circulation 00:35:20.16000:35:20.170 upon oxidation manganese 4 oxide plus h 00:35:23.64000:35:23.650 plus c plus plus d minus nu c the second 00:35:26.52000:35:26.530 mechanism is based on the surface 00:35:27.84000:35:27.850 adsorption of electrolyte cations on 00:35:29.70000:35:29.710 manganese 4 oxide manganese 4 oxide 00:35:32.82000:35:32.830 surface plus c plus plus e minus 00:35:34.47000:35:34.480 manganese 4 oxide minus c plus surface 00:35:37.17000:35:37.180 no every material that exhibits faraday 00:35:39.00000:35:39.010 behaviour can be used as an electrode 00:35:40.74000:35:40.750 for pseudo capacitors such as neo 2 00:35:42.93000:35:42.940 since it is a battery type electrode 00:35:44.46000:35:44.470 nonlinear dependence on current versus 00:35:46.26000:35:46.270 voltage curve 00:35:50.94000:35:50.950 topic metal oxides Brian Evans Conway's 00:35:57.09900:35:57.109 research described electrodes of 00:35:58.66000:35:58.670 transition metal oxides that exhibited 00:36:00.49000:36:00.500 high amounts of pseudo capacitance 00:36:02.16000:36:02.170 oxides of transition metals including 00:36:04.51000:36:04.520 ruthenium r uo to iridium iro to iron 00:36:07.83900:36:07.849 manganese manganese four oxide or 00:36:09.81900:36:09.829 sulfides such as titanium sulfide 00:36:11.71000:36:11.720 titanium 4 sulfide alone or in 00:36:13.77900:36:13.789 combination generate strong Faraday a 00:36:15.51900:36:15.529 collector on transferring reactions 00:36:17.10900:36:17.119 combined with low resistance ruthenium 00:36:19.72000:36:19.730 dioxide in combination with h2 so4 00:36:21.88000:36:21.890 electrolyte provides specific 00:36:23.55900:36:23.569 capacitance of 720 F per gram and a high 00:36:26.14000:36:26.150 specific energy of twenty six point 00:36:27.94000:36:27.950 seven watt hours per kilogram 96.1 to 00:36:30.64000:36:30.650 kilo joules per kilogram charge 00:36:32.31900:36:32.329 discharge takes place over a window of 00:36:34.18000:36:34.190 about 1.2 volts per electrode this 00:36:36.78900:36:36.799 pseudo capacitance of about 720 F per 00:36:39.43000:36:39.440 gram is roughly 100 times higher than 00:36:41.34900:36:41.359 for double layer capacitance using 00:36:42.94000:36:42.950 activated carbon electrodes these 00:36:45.22000:36:45.230 transition metal electrodes offer 00:36:46.83900:36:46.849 excellent reversibility with several 00:36:48.57900:36:48.589 hundred thousand cycles 00:36:49.79900:36:49.809 however ruthenium is expensive in the 00:36:52.32900:36:52.339 2.4 volts voltage window for this 00:36:54.27900:36:54.289 capacitor that limits their applications 00:36:55.87000:36:55.880 to military and space applications 00:36:57.96000:36:57.970 dassit al reported highest capacitance 00:37:00.54900:37:00.559 value 1715 F per gram for ruthenium 00:37:03.22000:37:03.230 oxide based super capacitor with 00:37:04.72000:37:04.730 electrodeposited ruthenium oxide onto 00:37:06.81900:37:06.829 porous single-walled carbon nanotubes 00:37:08.52900:37:08.539 film electrode a high specific 00:37:10.48000:37:10.490 capacitance of 1715 F per gram has been 00:37:13.29900:37:13.309 reported which closely approaches the 00:37:14.85900:37:14.869 predicted theoretical maximum r uo to 00:37:16.69000:37:16.700 capacitance of 2000 F per gram in 2014 00:37:20.68000:37:20.690 are you--oh 2 super capacitor anchored 00:37:22.63000:37:22.640 on a graphene foam electrode delivered 00:37:24.33900:37:24.349 specific capacitance of 500 and 2.78 F 00:37:27.01000:37:27.020 per gram and Arial capacitance of 1.1 1f 00:37:29.58900:37:29.599 per square centimeter leading to a 00:37:31.15000:37:31.160 specific energy of 39 point 2 8 watt 00:37:33.43000:37:33.440 hours per kilogram and specific power of 00:37:35.47000:37:35.480 128 point zero 1 kilowatts per kilogram 00:37:38.23000:37:38.240 over 8,000 cycles with constant 00:37:40.05900:37:40.069 performance the device was a 00:37:41.95000:37:41.960 three-dimensional 3d sub 5 nanometer 00:37:44.38000:37:44.390 hydrous ruthenium anchored graphene and 00:37:46.18000:37:46.190 carbon nanotubes CNT hybrid foam rgm 00:37:48.91000:37:48.920 architecture the graphene foam was 00:37:51.27900:37:51.289 conformally covered with hybrid networks 00:37:52.99000:37:53.000 of ru o 2 nanoparticles and anchored 00:37:55.05900:37:55.069 CMT's less expensive oxides of iron 00:37:57.30900:37:57.319 vanadium nickel and cobalt have been 00:37:59.26000:37:59.270 tested in aqueous electrolytes but none 00:38:01.05900:38:01.069 has been investigated as much as 00:38:02.55900:38:02.569 manganese dioxide 00:38:03.57900:38:03.589 manganese for oxide however none of 00:38:06.19000:38:06.200 these oxides are in commercial use 00:38:11.57900:38:11.589 topic conductive polymers 00:38:16.39000:38:16.400 another approach uses electron 00:38:18.30900:38:18.319 conducting polymers a pseudo capacitive 00:38:20.14000:38:20.150 material although mechanically weak 00:38:22.05900:38:22.069 conductive polymers have high 00:38:23.44000:38:23.450 conductivity resulting in a low ESR and 00:38:25.56900:38:25.579 a relatively high capacitance such 00:38:28.00000:38:28.010 conducting polymers include polyaniline 00:38:29.76900:38:29.779 poly thiophene poly payroll and 00:38:31.87000:38:31.880 polyacetylene such electrodes also 00:38:34.15000:38:34.160 employ electrochemical doping or dead 00:38:35.98000:38:35.990 opening of the polymers with anions and 00:38:37.56900:38:37.579 cations electrodes made from or coated 00:38:40.29900:38:40.309 with conductive polymers have cost 00:38:41.74000:38:41.750 comparable to carbon electrodes 00:38:43.76900:38:43.779 conducting polymer electrodes generally 00:38:46.02900:38:46.039 suffer from limited cycling stability 00:38:47.76900:38:47.779 however polyethylene electrodes provide 00:38:50.17000:38:50.180 up to 10,000 cycles much better than 00:38:52.15000:38:52.160 batteries 00:38:56.79000:38:56.800 topic electrodes for hybrid capacitors 00:39:02.72000:39:02.730 all commercial hybrid super capacitors 00:39:04.94000:39:04.950 are asymmetric they combine an electrode 00:39:07.09900:39:07.109 with high amount of pseudo capacitance 00:39:08.78000:39:08.790 with an electrode with a high amount of 00:39:10.31000:39:10.320 double layer capacitance in such systems 00:39:12.98000:39:12.990 the Faraday extrude Oh capacitance 00:39:14.51000:39:14.520 electrode with their higher capacitance 00:39:16.09900:39:16.109 provides high specific energy while the 00:39:17.78000:39:17.790 non faraday oaky BLC electrode enables 00:39:20.12000:39:20.130 high specific power an advantage of the 00:39:22.70000:39:22.710 hybrid type super capacitors compared 00:39:24.50000:39:24.510 with symmetrical EDL C's is their higher 00:39:26.39000:39:26.400 specific capacitance value as well as 00:39:28.25000:39:28.260 their higher rated voltage and 00:39:29.54000:39:29.550 correspondingly their higher specific 00:39:31.16000:39:31.17000:39:35.53000:39:35.540 topic composite electrodes composite 00:39:41.30000:39:41.310 electrodes for high 00:39:42.13000:39:42.140 retyped super capacitors are constructed 00:39:43.96000:39:43.970 from carbon-based material with 00:39:45.37000:39:45.380 incorporated or deposited pseudo 00:39:47.04900:39:47.059 capacitive active materials like metal 00:39:48.88000:39:48.890 oxides and conducting polymers as of 00:39:51.37000:39:51.380 2013 most research for super capacitors 00:39:53.65000:39:53.660 explores composite electrodes CNTs give 00:39:56.98000:39:56.990 a backbone for a homogeneous 00:39:58.05900:39:58.069 distribution of metal oxide or 00:39:59.95000:39:59.960 electrically conducting polymers each 00:40:01.42000:40:01.430 CPS producing good pseudo capacitance 00:40:03.60900:40:03.619 and good double layer capacitance these 00:40:05.95000:40:05.960 electrodes achieve higher capacitances 00:40:07.77900:40:07.789 than either pure carbon or pure metal 00:40:09.37000:40:09.380 oxide or polymer based electrodes this 00:40:11.98000:40:11.990 is attributed to the accessibility of 00:40:13.53900:40:13.549 the nanotubes tangled mat structure 00:40:15.33900:40:15.349 which allows a uniform coating of pseudo 00:40:17.23000:40:17.240 capacitive materials and three 00:40:18.64000:40:18.650 dimensional charge distribution the 00:40:20.89000:40:20.900 process to anchor pseudo capacitive a 00:40:22.66000:40:22.670 materials usually uses a hydrothermal 00:40:24.40000:40:24.410 process however a recent researcher Lea 00:40:27.33900:40:27.349 towel from the University of Delaware 00:40:28.93000:40:28.940 found a facile and scalable approach to 00:40:31.05900:40:31.069 precipitate manganese for oxide on a SW 00:40:33.37000:40:33.380 NT film to make an organic electrolyte 00:40:35.34900:40:35.359 based super capacitor another way to 00:40:37.02900:40:37.039 enhance CNT electrodes is by doping with 00:40:39.25000:40:39.260 a pseudo capacitive dopant as in lithium 00:40:41.04900:40:41.059 ion capacitors in this case the 00:40:43.32900:40:43.339 relatively small lithium atoms 00:40:44.76900:40:44.779 intercalate between the layers of carbon 00:40:46.42000:40:46.430 the anode is made of lithium doped 00:40:48.75900:40:48.769 carbon which enables low and negative 00:40:50.44000:40:50.450 potential with a cathode made of 00:40:51.78900:40:51.799 activated carbon this results in a 00:40:54.16000:40:54.170 larger voltage of three point eight to 00:40:55.74900:40:55.759 four volts that prevents electrolyte 00:40:57.22000:40:57.230 oxidation as of 2007 they had achieved 00:41:00.22000:41:00.230 capacitance of 550 F per gram and reach 00:41:03.13000:41:03.140 a specific energy up to 14 watt hours 00:41:05.14000:41:05.150 per kilogram fifty point four kilo 00:41:07.05900:41:07.069 joules per kilogram 00:41:12.04000:41:12.050 topic battery type electrodes 00:41:17.35900:41:17.369 rechargeable battery electrodes 00:41:19.20000:41:19.210 influenced the development of electrodes 00:41:20.91000:41:20.920 for new hybrid type super capacitor 00:41:22.56000:41:22.570 electrodes as for lithium-ion capacitors 00:41:24.65000:41:24.660 together with a carbon ii dlc electrode 00:41:27.35900:41:27.369 in an asymmetric construction offers 00:41:28.92000:41:28.930 this configuration higher specific 00:41:30.57000:41:30.580 energy than typical super capacitors 00:41:32.25000:41:32.260 with higher specific power longer cycle 00:41:34.32000:41:34.330 life and faster charging and recharging 00:41:35.67000:41:35.680 times than batteries 00:41:40.96000:41:40.970 topic asymmetric electrodes pseudo EDL 00:41:44.63000:41:44.640 see recently some asymmetric hybrid 00:41:49.57900:41:49.589 super capacitors were developed in which 00:41:51.23000:41:51.240 the positive electrode were based on a 00:41:52.79000:41:52.800 real pseudo capacitive metal oxide 00:41:54.56000:41:54.570 electrode not a composite electrode and 00:41:56.42000:41:56.430 the negative electrode on an e d LC 00:41:58.19000:41:58.200 activated carbon electrode an advantage 00:42:01.16000:42:01.170 of this type of super capacitors is 00:42:02.72000:42:02.730 their higher voltage and correspondingly 00:42:04.33900:42:04.349 their higher specific energy up to 10 to 00:42:06.34900:42:06.359 20 watt hours per kilogram 36 to 72 kilo 00:42:09.41000:42:09.420 joules per kilogram as far as no no 00:42:11.32900:42:11.339 commercial offered super capacitors with 00:42:12.98000:42:12.990 such kind of asymmetric electrodes are 00:42:14.75000:42:14.760 on the market 00:42:19.76000:42:19.770 topic electrolytes 00:42:24.77000:42:24.780 electrolytes consist of a solvent and 00:42:26.94000:42:26.950 dissolve chemicals that dissociate into 00:42:28.65000:42:28.660 positive cations and negative anions 00:42:30.54000:42:30.550 making the electrolyte electrically 00:42:32.07000:42:32.080 conductive the more ions the electrolyte 00:42:34.53000:42:34.540 contains the better its conductivity in 00:42:36.78000:42:36.790 super capacitors electrolytes are the 00:42:38.55000:42:38.560 electrically conductive connection 00:42:39.93000:42:39.940 between the two electrodes 00:42:41.30000:42:41.310 additionally in super capacitors the 00:42:43.53000:42:43.540 electrolyte provides the molecules for 00:42:45.24000:42:45.250 the separating mono layer in the 00:42:46.53000:42:46.540 Helmholtz double layer and delivers the 00:42:48.06000:42:48.070 ions for pseudo capacitance the 00:42:50.49000:42:50.500 electrolyte determines the capacitors 00:42:52.17000:42:52.180 characteristics its operating voltage 00:42:54.12000:42:54.130 temperature range ESR in capacitance 00:42:56.19000:42:56.200 with the same activated carbon electrode 00:42:58.80000:42:58.810 and aqueous electrolyte achieves 00:43:00.21000:43:00.220 capacitance values of 160 F per gram 00:43:02.85000:43:02.860 while an organic electrolyte achieves 00:43:04.56000:43:04.570 only 100 F per gram the electrolyte must 00:43:06.87000:43:06.880 be chemically inert and not chemically 00:43:08.43000:43:08.440 attacked the other materials in the 00:43:09.87000:43:09.880 capacitor to ensure long time stable 00:43:11.73000:43:11.740 behavior of the capacitors electrical 00:43:13.38000:43:13.390 parameters the electrolytes viscosity 00:43:15.87000:43:15.880 must be low enough to wet the porous 00:43:17.37000:43:17.380 sponge-like structure of the electrodes 00:43:19.11000:43:19.120 an ideal electrolyte does not exist 00:43:21.69000:43:21.700 forcing a compromise between performance 00:43:23.01000:43:23.020 and other requirements 00:43:28.58900:43:28.599 topic aqueous 00:43:33.16000:43:33.170 water is a relatively good solvent for 00:43:35.31900:43:35.329 inorganic chemicals treated with acids 00:43:37.66000:43:37.670 such as sulfuric acid h2so4 alkalized 00:43:40.50900:43:40.519 such as potassium hydroxide coke or 00:43:42.49000:43:42.500 salts such as quaternary phosphonium 00:43:44.17000:43:44.180 salts sodium perchlorate sodium 00:43:46.08900:43:46.099 hypochlorite lithium perchlorate lithium 00:43:48.19000:43:48.200 hypochlorite or lithium hexafluoride 00:43:50.01900:43:50.029 arsenate li a sf6 water offers 00:43:52.21000:43:52.220 relatively high conductivity values of 00:43:54.19000:43:54.200 about 100 to 1000 millions per 00:43:56.41000:43:56.420 centimeter aqueous electrolytes have a 00:43:58.90000:43:58.910 dissociation voltage of 1.15 volts per 00:44:01.45000:44:01.460 electrode 2 point 3 volts capacitor 00:44:03.46000:44:03.470 voltage and a relatively low operating 00:44:05.14000:44:05.150 temperature range they are used in super 00:44:07.63000:44:07.640 capacitors with low specific energy and 00:44:09.51900:44:09.529 high specific power 00:44:14.72000:44:14.730 topic organic 00:44:19.31000:44:19.320 electrolytes with organic solvents such 00:44:21.54000:44:21.550 as acetone nitrile propylene carbonate 00:44:23.55000:44:23.560 tetrahydrofuran diethyl carbonate gamma 00:44:25.98000:44:25.990 butyrolactone and solutions with 00:44:27.57000:44:27.580 quaternary ammonium salts or alcohol 00:44:29.37000:44:29.380 ammonium salts such as 00:44:30.39000:44:30.400 tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate and 00:44:32.43000:44:32.440 at for bf4 or tri ethyl methyl 00:44:34.77000:44:34.780 tetrafluoroborate nme at 3 bf4 are more 00:44:37.59000:44:37.600 expensive than aqueous electrolytes but 00:44:39.30000:44:39.310 they have a higher dissociation voltage 00:44:41.01000:44:41.020 of typically 1.3 5 volts per electrode 2 00:44:43.59000:44:43.600 point 7 volts capacitor voltage and a 00:44:45.60000:44:45.610 higher temperature range the lower 00:44:47.60900:44:47.619 electrical conductivity of organic 00:44:49.41000:44:49.420 solvents 10 to 60 milli Siemens per 00:44:51.33000:44:51.340 centimeter leads to a lower specific 00:44:53.16000:44:53.170 power but since the specific energy 00:44:54.93000:44:54.940 increases with the square of the voltage 00:44:56.31000:44:56.320 a higher specific energy 00:45:02.29000:45:02.300 topic separators separators have to 00:45:08.48000:45:08.490 physically separate the two electrodes 00:45:10.01000:45:10.020 to prevent a short-circuit by direct 00:45:11.66000:45:11.670 contact it can be very thin a few 00:45:14.15000:45:14.160 hundredths of a millimeter and must be 00:45:15.65000:45:15.660 very porous to the conducting ions to 00:45:17.33000:45:17.340 minimize ESR furthermore separators must 00:45:20.42000:45:20.430 be chemically inert to protect the 00:45:21.80000:45:21.810 electrolyte stability and conductivity 00:45:23.95000:45:23.960 inexpensive components use open 00:45:26.00000:45:26.010 capacitor papers more sophisticated 00:45:28.19000:45:28.200 designs use nonwoven porous polymeric 00:45:30.14000:45:30.150 films like poly acrylonitrile or captain 00:45:32.24000:45:32.250 woven glass fibers or porous woven 00:45:34.22000:45:34.230 ceramic fibers 00:45:39.45000:45:39.460 topic collectors in housing current 00:45:45.64000:45:45.650 collectors connect the electrodes to the 00:45:47.14000:45:47.150 capacitors terminals the collector is 00:45:49.27000:45:49.280 either sprayed onto the electrode or is 00:45:50.92000:45:50.930 a metal foil they must be able to 00:45:53.14000:45:53.150 distribute peak currents of up to 108 if 00:45:55.60000:45:55.610 the housing is made out of a metal 00:45:57.60900:45:57.619 typically aluminum the collectors should 00:45:59.38000:45:59.390 be made from the same material to avoid 00:46:01.12000:46:01.130 forming a corrosive galvanic cell 00:46:07.50000:46:07.510 topic electrical parameters 00:46:16.34900:46:16.359 topic capacitance capacitance values for 00:46:22.83900:46:22.849 commercial capacitors as specified as 00:46:24.60900:46:24.619 rated capacitance C R this is the value 00:46:27.82000:46:27.830 for which the capacitor has been 00:46:29.23000:46:29.240 designed the value for an actual 00:46:31.06000:46:31.070 component must be within the limits 00:46:32.44000:46:32.450 given by the specified tolerance typical 00:46:35.34900:46:35.359 values are in the range of farad's F 3 00:46:37.35900:46:37.369 to 6 orders of magnitude larger than 00:46:39.09900:46:39.109 those of electrolytic capacitors the 00:46:41.62000:46:41.630 capacitance value results from the 00:46:43.18000:46:43.190 energy W display style W expressed in 00:46:48.40000:46:48.410 dual of a loaded capacitor loaded via a 00:46:50.41000:46:50.420 DC voltage V DC W equals 1 to see DC V 00:47:01.29000:47:01.300 DC to display style W equals prek-12 see 00:47:07.48000:47:07.490 the OTC underscore text DC CDO TV 00:47:10.51000:47:10.520 underscore text DC carrot 2 this value 00:47:13.72000:47:13.730 is also called the DC capacitance 00:47:20.77000:47:20.780 topic measurement conventional 00:47:26.24000:47:26.250 capacitors are normally measured with a 00:47:27.74000:47:27.750 small AC voltage 0.5 volts and a 00:47:30.35000:47:30.360 frequency of 100 Hertz or 1 kilohertz 00:47:32.27000:47:32.280 depending on the capacitor type the AC 00:47:34.79000:47:34.800 capacitance measurement offers fast 00:47:36.47000:47:36.480 results important for industrial 00:47:37.82000:47:37.830 production lines the capacitance value 00:47:40.64000:47:40.650 of a super capacitor depends strongly on 00:47:42.41000:47:42.420 the measurement frequency which is 00:47:43.88000:47:43.890 related to the porous electrode 00:47:45.26000:47:45.270 structure in the limited electrolytes 00:47:46.82000:47:46.830 ion mobility even at a low frequency of 00:47:49.52000:47:49.530 10 Hertz the measured capacitance value 00:47:51.41000:47:51.420 drops from 100 to 20 percent of the DC 00:47:53.60000:47:53.610 capacitance value this extraordinary 00:47:56.06000:47:56.070 strong frequency dependence can be 00:47:57.83000:47:57.840 explained by the different distances the 00:47:59.48000:47:59.490 ions have to move in the electrodes 00:48:00.98000:48:00.990 pause the area at the beginning of the 00:48:03.32000:48:03.330 pores can easily be accessed by the ions 00:48:05.27000:48:05.280 the short distance is accompanied by low 00:48:07.85000:48:07.860 electrical resistance the greater the 00:48:09.77000:48:09.780 distance the ions have to cover the 00:48:11.36000:48:11.370 higher the resistance this phenomenon 00:48:13.61000:48:13.620 can be described with a series circuit 00:48:15.08000:48:15.090 of cascaded RC resistor capacitor 00:48:16.94000:48:16.950 elements with serial RC time constants 00:48:19.37000:48:19.380 these result in delayed current flow 00:48:21.68000:48:21.690 reducing the total electrode surface 00:48:23.33000:48:23.340 area that can be covered with ions if 00:48:25.13000:48:25.140 polarity changes capacitance decreases 00:48:26.72000:48:26.730 with increasing AC frequency thus the 00:48:29.69000:48:29.700 total capacitance is only achieved after 00:48:31.43000:48:31.440 longer measuring times out of the reason 00:48:34.37000:48:34.380 of the very strong frequency dependence 00:48:36.08000:48:36.090 of the capacitance this electrical 00:48:37.55000:48:37.560 parameter has to be measured with a 00:48:38.84000:48:38.850 special constant current charge in 00:48:40.40000:48:40.410 discharge measurement to find in IEC 00:48:42.26000:48:42.270 standard 60 mm 391 minus 1 and minus 2 00:48:46.45000:48:46.460 measurement starts with charging the 00:48:48.41000:48:48.420 capacitor the voltage has to be applied 00:48:50.51000:48:50.520 and after the constant current constant 00:48:52.25000:48:52.260 voltage power supply has achieved the 00:48:53.96000:48:53.970 rated voltage the capacitor has to be 00:48:55.70000:48:55.710 charged for 30 minutes 00:48:56.93000:48:56.940 next the capacitor has to be discharged 00:48:59.30000:48:59.310 with a constant discharge current IDUs 00:49:00.95000:49:00.960 charge then the time T 1 and T 2 for the 00:49:03.92000:49:03.930 voltage to drop from 80 percent V 1 to 00:49:06.02000:49:06.030 40 percent V 2 at the rated voltage is 00:49:08.21000:49:08.220 measured the capacitance value is 00:49:10.49000:49:10.500 calculated as C total equals I discharge 00:49:17.92000:49:17.930 T 2 minus T 1 V 00:49:26.56000:49:26.570 one minus v2 displaced I'll see 00:49:32.62000:49:32.630 underscore text total equals i 00:49:34.39000:49:34.400 underscore text discharged CDO t frac t 00:49:37.09000:49:37.100 underscore 2t underscore one the 00:49:39.13000:49:39.140 underscore one v underscore two the 00:49:42.10000:49:42.110 value of the discharge current is 00:49:43.54000:49:43.550 determined by the application the IEC 00:49:46.21000:49:46.220 standard defines four classes memory 00:49:49.03000:49:49.040 backup discharge current in ma equals 00:49:51.07000:49:51.080 one c f energy storage discharge current 00:49:54.31000:49:54.320 in mark equals 0 for c f vb power 00:49:58.03000:49:58.040 discharge current in ma equals four c FB 00:50:00.61000:50:00.620 v instantaneous power discharge current 00:50:04.18000:50:04.190 in mark equals 40 c FV v the measurement 00:50:07.03000:50:07.040 methods employed by individual 00:50:08.41000:50:08.420 manufacturers are mainly comparable to 00:50:10.12000:50:10.130 the standardized methods the 00:50:11.35000:50:11.360 standardized measuring method is too 00:50:12.88000:50:12.890 time-consuming for manufacturers to use 00:50:14.77000:50:14.780 during production for each individual 00:50:16.30000:50:16.310 component for industrial produced 00:50:18.58000:50:18.590 capacitors the capacitance value is 00:50:20.23000:50:20.240 instead measured with a faster low 00:50:21.67000:50:21.680 frequency AC voltage in a correlation 00:50:23.68000:50:23.690 factor is used to compute the rated 00:50:25.27000:50:25.280 capacitance this frequency dependence 00:50:28.00000:50:28.010 affects capacitor operation rapid charge 00:50:30.37000:50:30.380 and discharge cycles mean that neither 00:50:32.02000:50:32.030 the rated capacitance value nor specific 00:50:33.79000:50:33.800 energy are available in this case the 00:50:36.37000:50:36.380 rated capacitance value is recalculated 00:50:38.20000:50:38.210 for each application condition 00:50:44.29000:50:44.300 topic operating voltage super capacitors 00:50:50.81000:50:50.820 are low voltage components safe 00:50:52.73000:50:52.740 operation requires that the voltage 00:50:54.35000:50:54.360 remain within specified limits the rated 00:50:56.72000:50:56.730 voltage your is the maximum DC voltage 00:50:58.82000:50:58.830 or peak pulse voltage that may be 00:51:00.23000:51:00.240 applied continuously and remain within 00:51:01.88000:51:01.890 the specified temperature range 00:51:03.61000:51:03.620 capacitors should never be subjected to 00:51:05.72000:51:05.730 voltages continuously in excess of the 00:51:07.58000:51:07.590 rated voltage the rated voltage includes 00:51:10.46000:51:10.470 a safety margin against the electrolytes 00:51:12.26000:51:12.270 breakdown voltage at which the 00:51:13.61000:51:13.620 electrolyte decomposes the breakdown 00:51:16.07000:51:16.080 voltage decomposes the separating 00:51:17.84000:51:17.850 solvent molecules in the Helmholtz 00:51:19.16000:51:19.170 double layer F II water splits into 00:51:22.25000:51:22.260 hydrogen and oxygen molecules then 00:51:24.95000:51:24.960 cannot separate the electrical charges 00:51:26.69000:51:26.700 from each other higher voltages than 00:51:28.91000:51:28.920 rated voltage caused hydrogen gas 00:51:30.71000:51:30.720 formation or a short circuit standard 00:51:33.59000:51:33.600 super capacitors with aqueous 00:51:34.70000:51:34.710 electrolyte normally are specified with 00:51:36.71000:51:36.720 a rated voltage of 2.1 to 2.3 volts and 00:51:39.38000:51:39.390 capacitors with organic solvents with 00:51:41.06000:51:41.070 2.5 to 2.7 v lithium-ion capacitors with 00:51:44.15000:51:44.160 doped electrodes may reach a rated 00:51:45.80000:51:45.810 voltage of three point eight to four 00:51:47.21000:51:47.220 volts but have a lower voltage limit of 00:51:48.95000:51:48.960 about 2.2 V operating super capacitors 00:51:52.28000:51:52.290 below the rated voltage improves the 00:51:53.87000:51:53.880 longtime behavior of the electrical 00:51:55.40000:51:55.410 parameters capacitance values and 00:51:57.80000:51:57.810 internal resistance during cycling are 00:51:59.51000:51:59.520 more stable in lifetime in charge 00:52:01.04000:52:01.050 discharge cycles may be extended higher 00:52:03.05000:52:03.060 application voltages require connecting 00:52:05.03000:52:05.040 cells in series since each component has 00:52:07.70000:52:07.710 a slight difference in capacitance value 00:52:09.47000:52:09.480 in ESR is necessary to actively or 00:52:11.63000:52:11.640 passively balance them to stabilize the 00:52:13.25000:52:13.260 applied voltage passive balancing 00:52:15.56000:52:15.570 employs resistors in parallel with the 00:52:17.27000:52:17.280 super capacitors active balancing may 00:52:19.46000:52:19.470 include electronic voltage management 00:52:21.23000:52:21.240 above a threshold that varies the 00:52:22.64000:52:22.650 current 00:52:27.35900:52:27.369 topic internal resistance charging 00:52:33.54900:52:33.559 discharging a super capacitor is 00:52:35.17000:52:35.180 connected to the movement of charge 00:52:36.49000:52:36.500 carriers ions in the electrolyte across 00:52:38.47000:52:38.480 the separator to the electrodes and into 00:52:40.21000:52:40.220 their porous structure losses occur 00:52:42.46000:52:42.470 during this movement that can be 00:52:43.66000:52:43.670 measured as the internal DC resistance 00:52:45.66000:52:45.670 with the electrical model of cascaded 00:52:48.22000:52:48.230 series connected RC resistor capacitor 00:52:50.20000:52:50.210 elements in the electrode pores the 00:52:52.21000:52:52.220 internal resistance increases with the 00:52:53.76900:52:53.779 increasing penetration depth of the 00:52:55.32900:52:55.339 charge carriers into the pores the 00:52:57.54900:52:57.559 internal DC resistance is time dependent 00:52:59.44000:52:59.450 and increases during charge discharge in 00:53:02.17000:53:02.180 applications often only the switch on 00:53:04.00000:53:04.010 and switch off range is interesting the 00:53:06.22000:53:06.230 internal resistance ring can be 00:53:07.56900:53:07.579 calculated from the voltage drop Delta V 00:53:09.67000:53:09.680 - at the time of discharge starting with 00:53:11.65000:53:11.660 a constant discharge current I discharge 00:53:13.28900:53:13.299 it is obtained from the intersection of 00:53:15.78900:53:15.799 the auxilary line extended from the 00:53:17.34900:53:17.359 straight part and the time base at the 00:53:18.81900:53:18.829 time of discharge start C picture write 00:53:20.91000:53:20.920 resistance can be calculated by ah I 00:53:25.71000:53:25.720 equals Delta V - I discharge display 00:53:34.51000:53:34.520 style r underscore text i equals frak 00:53:36.76000:53:36.770 delta v underscore - i underscore text 00:53:39.27900:53:39.289 discharge the discharge current i 00:53:41.76900:53:41.779 discharge for the measurement of 00:53:42.94000:53:42.950 internal resistance can be taken from 00:53:44.47000:53:44.480 the classification according to IEC 00:53:46.34900:53:46.359 62,000 391 - 1 this internal DC 00:53:51.01000:53:51.020 resistance re should not be confused 00:53:52.56900:53:52.579 with the internal AC resistance called 00:53:54.40000:53:54.41000:53:56.23000:53:56.240 normally specified for capacitors it is 00:53:58.93000:53:58.940 measured at 1 kilohertz 00:54:00.19000:54:00.200 ESR is much smaller than DC resistance 00:54:02.67000:54:02.680 ESR is not relevant for calculating 00:54:05.07900:54:05.089 superconductor inrush currents or other 00:54:06.91000:54:06.920 peak currents Reda terminator properties 00:54:10.75000:54:10.760 it limits the charge in discharge peak 00:54:12.88000:54:12.890 currents as well as charge discharge 00:54:14.20000:54:14.210 times re in the capacitance C results in 00:54:17.23000:54:17.240 the time constant tau displaced I'll 00:54:20.85900:54:20.869 tell tau equals ah I see display style 00:54:29.20000:54:29.210 tau equals R underscore text height CDO 00:54:31.66000:54:31.670 TC this time constant 00:54:34.09900:54:34.109 determines the charge/discharge time a 00:54:36.09900:54:36.109 100 F capacitor with an internal 00:54:38.39000:54:38.400 resistance of 30 millions for example 00:54:40.33900:54:40.349 has a time constant of 0.03 100 equals 00:54:43.33900:54:43.349 3s after 3 seconds charging with a 00:54:45.97900:54:45.989 current limited only by internal 00:54:47.56900:54:47.579 resistance the capacitor has 63.2% of 00:54:50.35900:54:50.369 full charge or is discharged to 36.8% of 00:54:53.15000:54:53.160 full charge standard capacitors with 00:54:55.84900:54:55.859 constant internal resistance fully 00:54:57.38000:54:57.390 charged during about 5 tower since 00:54:59.77900:54:59.789 internal resistance increases with 00:55:01.40000:55:01.410 charge discharge actual times cannot be 00:55:03.34900:55:03.359 calculated with this formula thus charge 00:55:05.98900:55:05.999 discharge time depends on specific 00:55:07.78900:55:07.799 individual construction details 00:55:13.81000:55:13.820 topic current load and cycle stability 00:55:19.60000:55:19.610 because super capacitors operate without 00:55:21.92000:55:21.930 forming chemical bonds current loads 00:55:23.78000:55:23.790 including charge discharge and peak 00:55:25.61000:55:25.620 currents are not limited by reaction 00:55:27.20000:55:27.210 constraints current load and cycle 00:55:29.57000:55:29.580 stability can be much higher than for 00:55:30.98000:55:30.990 rechargeable batteries current loads are 00:55:33.59000:55:33.600 limited only by internal resistance 00:55:35.27000:55:35.280 which may be substantially lower than 00:55:36.71000:55:36.720 for batteries internal resistance 00:55:39.47000:55:39.480 Raye and charge discharge currents or 00:55:42.08000:55:42.090 peak currents I generate internal heat 00:55:44.78000:55:44.790 losses Plus according to P loss equals I 00:55:52.69000:55:52.700 I to display style P underscore text 00:55:58.52000:55:58.530 loss equals our unscored text height CD 00:56:00.95000:56:00.960 oti carat to this heat must be released 00:56:04.04000:56:04.050 and distributed to the ambient 00:56:05.36000:56:05.370 environment to maintain operating 00:56:06.92000:56:06.930 temperatures below the specified maximum 00:56:08.72000:56:08.730 temperature heat generally defines 00:56:11.18000:56:11.190 capacitor lifetime because of 00:56:12.56000:56:12.570 electrolyte diffusion the heat 00:56:14.30000:56:14.310 generation coming from current loads 00:56:15.92000:56:15.930 should be smaller than 5 to 10 K at 00:56:17.75000:56:17.760 maximum ambient temperature which has 00:56:19.46000:56:19.470 only minor influence on expected 00:56:21.11000:56:21.120 lifetime for that reason the specified 00:56:23.57000:56:23.580 charge and discharge currents for 00:56:25.04000:56:25.050 frequent cycling are determined by 00:56:26.51000:56:26.520 internal resistance the specified cycle 00:56:29.51000:56:29.520 parameters under maximal conditions 00:56:31.10000:56:31.110 include charge and discharge current 00:56:32.72000:56:32.730 pulse duration and frequency they are 00:56:35.15000:56:35.160 specified for a defined temperature 00:56:36.53000:56:36.540 range and over the full voltage range 00:56:38.30000:56:38.310 for a defined lifetime they can differ 00:56:40.70000:56:40.710 enormously depending on the combination 00:56:42.17000:56:42.180 of electrode porosity pore size and 00:56:44.21000:56:44.220 electrolyte generally a lower current 00:56:46.73000:56:46.740 load increases capacitor life and 00:56:48.35000:56:48.360 increases the number of cycles this can 00:56:50.78000:56:50.790 be achieved either by a lower voltage 00:56:52.16000:56:52.170 range or slower charging and discharging 00:56:53.75000:56:53.760 super capacitors except those with 00:56:56.00000:56:56.010 polymer electrodes can potentially 00:56:57.47000:56:57.480 support more than 1 million 00:56:58.64000:56:58.650 charge/discharge cycles without 00:57:00.08000:57:00.090 substantial capacity drops or internal 00:57:02.18000:57:02.190 resistance increases beneath the higher 00:57:04.46000:57:04.470 current load is this the second great 00:57:06.02000:57:06.030 advantage of super capacitors over 00:57:07.64000:57:07.650 batteries the stability results from the 00:57:10.07000:57:10.080 dual electrostatic and electrochemical 00:57:11.96000:57:11.970 storage principles the specified charge 00:57:14.78000:57:14.790 and discharge currents can be 00:57:15.95000:57:15.960 significantly exceeded by lowering the 00:57:17.69000:57:17.700 frequency or by single pulses heat 00:57:20.18000:57:20.190 generated by a single pulse may be 00:57:21.80000:57:21.810 spread over the time until the next 00:57:23.36000:57:23.370 pulse occurs to ensure a relatively 00:57:24.86000:57:24.870 small average heat increase 00:57:26.60000:57:26.610 such a peak power current for power 00:57:29.72000:57:29.730 applications for super capacitors of 00:57:31.52000:57:31.530 more than 1000 F can provide a maximum 00:57:33.41000:57:33.420 peak current of about 1000 a such high 00:57:35.75000:57:35.760 currents generate high thermal stress 00:57:37.28000:57:37.290 and high electromagnetic forces that can 00:57:39.17000:57:39.180 damage the electrode collector 00:57:40.46000:57:40.470 connection requiring robust design and 00:57:42.32000:57:42.330 construction of the capacitors 00:57:48.00000:57:48.010 topic device capacitance and resistance 00:57:50.56000:57:50.570 dependence on operating voltage and 00:57:52.87000:57:52.880 temperature 00:57:56.47000:57:56.480 device parameters such as capacitance 00:57:58.75000:57:58.760 initial resistance and steady-state 00:58:00.04000:58:00.050 resistance are not constant but a 00:58:01.59900:58:01.609 variable and dependent on the devices 00:58:03.33900:58:03.349 operating voltage device capacitance 00:58:05.92000:58:05.930 will have a measurable increases the 00:58:07.39000:58:07.400 operating voltage increases for example 00:58:10.12000:58:10.130 a 100 F device can be seen to vary 26 00:58:12.70000:58:12.710 percent from its maximum capacitance 00:58:14.31900:58:14.329 over its entire operational voltage 00:58:15.91000:58:15.920 range similar dependence on operating 00:58:18.64000:58:18.650 voltage is seen in steady state 00:58:19.90000:58:19.910 resistance RS s and initial resistance 00:58:21.97000:58:21.980 BRE device properties can also be seen 00:58:25.18000:58:25.190 to be dependent on device temperature as 00:58:26.98000:58:26.990 the temperature of the device changes 00:58:29.29000:58:29.300 either through operation of varying 00:58:30.73000:58:30.740 ambient temperature the internal 00:58:32.20000:58:32.210 properties such as capacitance and 00:58:33.64000:58:33.650 resistance will vary as well device 00:58:35.92000:58:35.930 capacitance is seen to increase as the 00:58:37.66000:58:37.670 operating temperature increases 00:58:43.28000:58:43.290 topic energy capacity super capacitors 00:58:49.74000:58:49.750 occupy the gap between high power low 00:58:51.72000:58:51.730 energy electrolytic capacitors and low 00:58:53.49000:58:53.500 power high energy rechargeable batteries 00:58:55.44000:58:55.450 the energy WMA X expressed in Joule that 00:58:58.74000:58:58.750 can be stored in a capacitor is given by 00:59:00.60000:59:00.610 the formula W max equals 1/2 C total be 00:59:11.96000:59:11.970 loaded to display style W underscore 00:59:16.74000:59:16.750 text max equals frat 1/2 C the OTC 00:59:19.89000:59:19.900 underscore text total CDO TV underscore 00:59:22.56000:59:22.570 text loaded carrot to this formula 00:59:25.68000:59:25.690 describes the amount of energy stored 00:59:27.06000:59:27.070 and is often used to describe new 00:59:28.74000:59:28.750 research successes however only part of 00:59:31.50000:59:31.510 the stored energy is available to 00:59:33.03000:59:33.040 applications because the voltage drop in 00:59:34.86000:59:34.870 the time constant over the internal 00:59:36.27000:59:36.280 resistance mean that some of the stored 00:59:37.86000:59:37.870 charge is inaccessible the effective 00:59:40.14000:59:40.150 realized amount of energy ref is reduced 00:59:42.06000:59:42.070 by the used voltage difference between V 00:59:43.86000:59:43.870 Max and V min and can be represented as 00:59:46.01000:59:46.020 W F equals 1 to C V Max to minus V mean 01:00:01.37001:00:01.380 to display style W underscore text F 01:00:05.43001:00:05.440 equals frac 1 to C C D ot V underscore 01:00:08.94001:00:08.950 text max carrot to the underscore text 01:00:11.46001:00:11.470 min carrot to this formula also 01:00:14.37001:00:14.380 represents the energy isometric voltage 01:00:16.26001:00:16.270 components such as lithium ion 01:00:17.76001:00:17.77001:00:22.79001:00:22.800 topic specific energy and specific power 01:00:28.79001:00:28.800 the amount of energy that can be stored 01:00:31.20001:00:31.210 in a capacitor per mass of that 01:00:32.58001:00:32.590 capacitor is called its specific energy 01:00:34.79001:00:34.800 specific energy has measured gravimetric 01:00:37.14001:00:37.150 Li per unit of mass in what hours per 01:00:39.03001:00:39.040 kilogram what hour per kilogram the 01:00:41.88001:00:41.890 amount of energy can be stored in a 01:00:43.44001:00:43.450 capacitor per volume of that capacitor 01:00:45.27001:00:45.280 is called its energy density energy 01:00:47.37001:00:47.380 density is measured volumetrically per 01:00:49.44001:00:49.450 unit of volume in what hours per liter 01:00:51.30001:00:51.310 WH L as of 2013 commercial specific 01:00:55.29001:00:55.300 energies range from around 0.5 to 15 01:00:57.54001:00:57.550 watt hours per kilogram for comparison 01:01:00.45001:01:00.460 and aluminium electrolytic capacitor 01:01:02.22001:01:02.230 stores typically 0.01 to 0.3 watt hours 01:01:05.43001:01:05.440 per kilogram while a conventional lead 01:01:07.23001:01:07.240 acid battery stores typically 30 to 40 01:01:09.42001:01:09.430 watt hours per kilogram and modern 01:01:10.92001:01:10.930 lithium-ion batteries 100 to 265 watt 01:01:13.86001:01:13.870 hours per kilogram super capacitors can 01:01:16.59001:01:16.600 therefore store 10 to 100 times more 01:01:18.39001:01:18.400 energy than electrolytic capacitors but 01:01:20.34001:01:20.350 only one-tenth as much as batteries for 01:01:22.83001:01:22.840 reference petrol fuel has a specific 01:01:24.78001:01:24.790 energy of forty four point four mega 01:01:26.46001:01:26.470 joules per kilogram or 12,300 watt hours 01:01:29.22001:01:29.230 per kilogram in vehicle propulsion the 01:01:31.14001:01:31.150 efficiency of energy conversions should 01:01:32.79001:01:32.800 be considered resulting in 3,700 watt 01:01:35.19001:01:35.200 hours per kilogram considering a typical 01:01:37.14001:01:37.150 30 percent internal combustion engine 01:01:38.88001:01:38.890 efficiency commercial energy density 01:01:41.67001:01:41.680 also called volumetric specific energy 01:01:43.74001:01:43.750 in some literature varies widely but in 01:01:45.63001:01:45.640 general range from around five to eight 01:01:47.31001:01:47.320 watt hours L units of leaders in DM 01:01:50.01001:01:50.020 three can be used interchangeably in 01:01:51.96001:01:51.970 comparison petrol fuel has an energy 01:01:54.18001:01:54.190 density of thirty two point four mega 01:01:55.83001:01:55.840 joules L or 9000 watt hours L although 01:01:59.31001:01:59.320 the specific energy of super capacitors 01:02:01.17001:02:01.180 is insufficient compared with batteries 01:02:02.79001:02:02.800 capacitors have the important advantage 01:02:04.62001:02:04.630 of the specific power specific power 01:02:07.14001:02:07.150 describes the speed at which energy can 01:02:08.70001:02:08.710 be delivered to absorbed from the load 01:02:10.38001:02:10.390 the maximum power is given by the 01:02:12.69001:02:12.700 formula P max equals one for V two 01:02:23.85001:02:23.860 I display style P underscore text max 01:02:27.48001:02:27.490 equals frat one for cbot frac V carrot 01:02:30.78001:02:30.790 two are underscore with V equals voltage 01:02:33.93001:02:33.940 applied and read the internal DC 01:02:35.64001:02:35.650 resistance of the capacitor specific 01:02:38.40001:02:38.410 power is measured either gravimetric ly 01:02:40.08001:02:40.090 in kilowatts per kilogram kilowatt per 01:02:42.03001:02:42.040 kilogram specific power or 01:02:43.68001:02:43.690 volumetrically in kilowatts per litre 01:02:45.42001:02:45.430 KWL power density the described maximum 01:02:49.26001:02:49.270 power P max specifies the power of a 01:02:51.15001:02:51.160 theoretical rectangular single maximum 01:02:53.04001:02:53.050 current peak of a given voltage in real 01:02:55.50001:02:55.510 circuits the current peak is not 01:02:56.85001:02:56.860 rectangular and the voltage is smaller 01:02:58.50001:02:58.510 caused by the voltage drop IEC 62,000 01:03:02.22001:03:02.230 391 minus 2 established a more realistic 01:03:04.98001:03:04.990 effective powered pair for super 01:03:06.51001:03:06.520 capacitors for power applications P F 01:03:10.94001:03:10.950 equals 1/8 v2 ah I display style P 01:03:21.03001:03:21.040 underscore text F equals frac 1/8 CDO t 01:03:24.21001:03:24.220 frac V carrot to our underscore I super 01:03:27.63001:03:27.640 capacitor specific power is typically 10 01:03:29.67001:03:29.680 to 100 times greater than for batteries 01:03:31.47001:03:31.480 and can reach values up to 15 kilowatts 01:03:33.42001:03:33.430 per kilogram rag on charts relate energy 01:03:36.51001:03:36.520 to power and are a valuable tool for 01:03:37.95001:03:37.960 characterizing and visualizing energy 01:03:39.93001:03:39.940 storage components with such a diagram 01:03:42.39001:03:42.400 the position of specific power and 01:03:44.13001:03:44.140 specific energy of different storage 01:03:45.66001:03:45.670 technologies is easily to compare see 01:03:47.70001:03:47.710 diagram 01:03:52.69001:03:52.700 topic lifetime since supercapacitors do 01:03:59.12001:03:59.130 not rely on chemical changes in the 01:04:00.74001:04:00.750 electrodes except for those with polymer 01:04:02.51001:04:02.520 electrodes life times depend mostly on 01:04:04.37001:04:04.380 the rate of evaporation of the liquid 01:04:05.72001:04:05.730 electrolyte this evaporation in general 01:04:08.48001:04:08.490 is a function of temperature of current 01:04:10.19001:04:10.200 load current cycle frequency and voltage 01:04:12.22001:04:12.230 current load and cycle frequency 01:04:14.30001:04:14.310 generate internal heat so that the 01:04:16.19001:04:16.200 evaporation determining temperature is 01:04:17.90001:04:17.910 the sum of ambient and internal heat 01:04:19.46001:04:19.470 this temperature is measurable as core 01:04:21.74001:04:21.750 temperature in the center of a capacitor 01:04:23.45001:04:23.460 body the higher the core temperature the 01:04:25.73001:04:25.740 faster the evaporation and the shorter 01:04:27.34901:04:27.359 the lifetime evaporation generally 01:04:30.02001:04:30.030 results in decreasing capacitance and 01:04:31.64001:04:31.650 increasing internal resistance according 01:04:33.74001:04:33.750 to IEC n 60 2391 -2 capacitance 01:04:37.94001:04:37.950 reductions of over 30 percent or 01:04:39.53001:04:39.540 internal resistance exceeding 4 times 01:04:41.30001:04:41.310 its datasheet specifications are 01:04:42.92001:04:42.930 considered wear out failures implying 01:04:45.59001:04:45.600 that the component has reached 01:04:46.70001:04:46.710 end-of-life the capacitors are operable 01:04:48.89001:04:48.900 but with reduced capabilities whether 01:04:50.96001:04:50.970 the aberration of the parameters have 01:04:52.52001:04:52.530 any influence on the proper 01:04:53.69001:04:53.700 functionality or not depends on the 01:04:55.19001:04:55.200 application of the capacitors such large 01:04:58.16001:04:58.170 changes of electrical parameters 01:04:59.69001:04:59.700 specified in IEC n 60 2391 -2 are 01:05:03.83001:05:03.840 usually unacceptable for high current 01:05:05.21001:05:05.220 load applications components that 01:05:07.84901:05:07.859 support high current loads use much 01:05:09.38001:05:09.390 smaller limits eg 20% loss of 01:05:11.63001:05:11.640 capacitance or double the internal 01:05:13.13001:05:13.140 resistance the narrower definition is 01:05:15.47001:05:15.480 important for such applications since 01:05:17.30001:05:17.310 heat increases linearly with increasing 01:05:19.01001:05:19.020 internal resistance and the maximum 01:05:20.39001:05:20.400 temperature should not be exceeded 01:05:22.06001:05:22.070 temperatures higher than specified can 01:05:24.20001:05:24.210 destroy the capacitor the real 01:05:26.48001:05:26.490 application lifetime of super capacitors 01:05:28.52001:05:28.530 also called service life life expectancy 01:05:32.30001:05:32.310 or load life can reach 10 to 15 years or 01:05:36.20001:05:36.210 more at room temperature such long 01:05:38.21001:05:38.220 periods cannot be tested by 01:05:39.59001:05:39.600 manufacturers hence they specify the 01:05:41.75001:05:41.760 expected capacitor lifetime at the 01:05:43.49001:05:43.500 maximum temperature and voltage 01:05:44.66001:05:44.670 conditions the results are specified in 01:05:47.18001:05:47.190 data sheets using the notation tested 01:05:49.58001:05:49.590 time hours max temperature degree C such 01:05:53.24001:05:53.250 as 5000 H 65 degrees Celsius with this 01:05:57.83001:05:57.840 value in expressions derived from 01:05:59.33001:05:59.340 historical data lifetimes can be 01:06:01.16001:06:01.170 estimated for lower temperature 01:06:02.51001:06:02.520 conditions datasheet lifetime 01:06:05.00001:06:05.010 specification is tested by the 01:06:06.50001:06:06.510 manufacturers using an accelerated aging 01:06:08.59901:06:08.609 test called endurance test with maximum 01:06:11.57001:06:11.580 temperature and voltage over a specified 01:06:13.13001:06:13.140 time for R zero defect product policy 01:06:17.15001:06:17.160 during this test no wear out or total 01:06:18.95001:06:18.960 failure may occur the lifetime 01:06:21.41001:06:21.420 specification from data sheets can be 01:06:23.12001:06:23.130 used to estimate the expected lifetime 01:06:24.77001:06:24.780 for a given design the 10 degrees rule 01:06:28.09901:06:28.109 used for electrolytic capacitors with 01:06:30.41001:06:30.420 non solid electrolyte is used in those 01:06:32.15001:06:32.160 estimations and can be used for super 01:06:33.85901:06:33.869 capacitors this rule employs the 01:06:36.10901:06:36.119 Arrhenius equation a simple formula for 01:06:38.03001:06:38.040 the temperature dependence of reaction 01:06:39.68001:06:39.690 rates for every 10 degrees Celsius 01:06:41.90001:06:41.910 reduction in operating temperature the 01:06:43.88001:06:43.890 estimated life doubles L x equals L 0 to 01:06:54.01001:06:54.020 t0 minus T X 10 display style L 01:07:03.17001:07:03.180 underscore x equals L underscore zero C 01:07:05.78001:07:05.790 do t two-karat phrack t underscore 0 t 01:07:08.51001:07:08.520 underscore x 10 with lux equals 01:07:12.47001:07:12.480 estimated life time l 0 equals specified 01:07:15.92001:07:15.930 life time t 0 equals upper specified 01:07:19.13001:07:19.140 capacitor temperature t x equals actual 01:07:22.28001:07:22.290 operating temperature of the capacitor 01:07:23.90001:07:23.910 cell calculated with this formula 01:07:25.40001:07:25.410 capacitors specified with 5000 H at 65 01:07:28.22001:07:28.230 degrees Celsius 01:07:29.12001:07:29.130 have an estimated lifetime of 20,000 H 01:07:31.40001:07:31.410 at 45 degrees Celsius lifetimes are also 01:07:34.88001:07:34.890 dependent on the operating voltage 01:07:36.20001:07:36.210 because the development of gas in the 01:07:37.94001:07:37.950 liquid electrolyte depends on the 01:07:39.38001:07:39.390 voltage the lower the voltage the 01:07:41.45001:07:41.460 smaller the gas development and the 01:07:42.89001:07:42.900 longer the lifetime no general formula 01:07:45.53001:07:45.540 relates voltage to lifetime the voltage 01:07:47.81001:07:47.820 dependent curves shown from the picture 01:07:49.43001:07:49.440 are an empirical result from one 01:07:50.75001:07:50.760 manufacturer life expectancy for power 01:07:53.69001:07:53.700 applications may be also limited by 01:07:55.49001:07:55.500 current load or number of cycles this 01:07:58.04001:07:58.050 limitation has to be specified by the 01:07:59.87001:07:59.880 relevant manufacturer and is 01:08:01.31001:08:01.320 strongly-typed dependent 01:08:06.80001:08:06.810 topic self-discharge storing electrical 01:08:13.23001:08:13.240 energy in the double-layer separates the 01:08:15.00001:08:15.010 charge carriers within the pause by 01:08:16.47001:08:16.480 distances in the range of molecules over 01:08:19.07901:08:19.089 this short distance irregularities can 01:08:20.70001:08:20.710 occur leading to a small exchange of 01:08:22.47001:08:22.480 charge carriers and gradual discharge 01:08:24.06001:08:24.070 this self discharge is called leakage 01:08:26.49001:08:26.500 current leakage depends on capacitance 01:08:28.74001:08:28.750 voltage temperature and the chemical 01:08:30.48001:08:30.490 stability of the electrode electrolyte 01:08:32.07001:08:32.080 combination at room temperature leakage 01:08:34.77001:08:34.780 is so low that it is specified as time 01:08:36.51001:08:36.520 to self discharge super capacitor self 01:08:38.55001:08:38.560 discharge time is specified in hours 01:08:40.38001:08:40.390 days or weeks as an example of 5.5 volts 01:08:44.01001:08:44.020 F Panasonic gold capacitor specifies a 01:08:47.09901:08:47.109 voltage drop at 20 degrees Celsius from 01:08:49.17001:08:49.180 five point 5 volts to 3 volts in 600 01:08:51.57001:08:51.580 hours 25 days or three point six weeks 01:08:53.88001:08:53.890 for a double cell capacitor 01:08:59.64001:08:59.650 topic post charge voltage relaxation 01:09:05.74001:09:05.750 it has been noticed that after the e VLC 01:09:08.20001:09:08.210 experiences a charge or discharge the 01:09:10.15001:09:10.160 voltage will drift over time relaxing 01:09:11.98001:09:11.990 toward its previous voltage level the 01:09:14.26001:09:14.270 observed relaxation can occur over 01:09:15.97001:09:15.980 several hours and is likely due to long 01:09:17.80001:09:17.810 diffusion time constants of the porous 01:09:19.48001:09:19.490 electrodes within the e DLC 01:09:25.53001:09:25.540 topic polarity since the positive and 01:09:31.62901:09:31.639 negative electrodes or simply posit rode 01:09:33.55001:09:33.560 and negative respectively of symmetric 01:09:35.43901:09:35.449 super capacitors consists of the same 01:09:36.97001:09:36.980 material theoretically super capacitors 01:09:38.91901:09:38.929 have no true polarity and catastrophic 01:09:40.66001:09:40.670 failure does not normally occur however 01:09:42.91001:09:42.920 reverse charging a super capacitor 01:09:44.68001:09:44.690 lowers its capacity so it is recommended 01:09:46.66001:09:46.670 practice to maintain the polarity 01:09:48.09901:09:48.109 resulting from the formation of the 01:09:49.51001:09:49.520 electrodes during production a symmetric 01:09:52.08901:09:52.099 super capacitors are inherently polar 01:09:54.20901:09:54.219 pseudo capacitor in hybrid super 01:09:56.53001:09:56.540 capacitors which have electrochemical 01:09:58.18001:09:58.190 charge properties may not be operated 01:09:59.85901:09:59.869 with reverse polarity precluding their 01:10:01.47901:10:01.489 use in AC operation however this 01:10:04.14901:10:04.159 limitation does not apply to e d LC 01:10:06.10001:10:06.110 super capacitors a borrowing the 01:10:08.41001:10:08.420 insulating sleeve identifies the 01:10:10.06001:10:10.070 negative terminal in a polarized 01:10:11.50001:10:11.510 component in some literature the terms 01:10:14.31901:10:14.329 anode and cathode are used in place of 01:10:18.18901:10:18.199 negative electrode and positive 01:10:19.72001:10:19.730 electrode using anode and cathode to 01:10:21.97001:10:21.980 describe the electrodes in super 01:10:23.41001:10:23.420 capacitors and also rechargeable 01:10:24.93901:10:24.949 batteries including lithium ion 01:10:26.53001:10:26.540 batteries can lead to confusion because 01:10:28.18001:10:28.190 the polarity changes depending on 01:10:29.77001:10:29.780 whether a component is considered as a 01:10:31.24001:10:31.250 generator or as a consumer of current in 01:10:33.81901:10:33.829 electrochemistry cathode and anode are 01:10:35.83001:10:35.840 related to reduction in oxidation 01:10:37.24001:10:37.250 reactions respectively 01:10:38.70901:10:38.719 however in super capacitors based on 01:10:41.20001:10:41.210 electric double layer capacitance there 01:10:42.91001:10:42.920 is no oxidation and/or reduction 01:10:44.47001:10:44.480 reactions on any of the two electrodes 01:10:46.35001:10:46.360 therefore the concepts of cathode and 01:10:48.66901:10:48.679 anode do not apply 01:10:53.72901:10:53.739 topic comparison of selected commercial 01:10:56.79901:10:56.809 super capacitors the range of electrodes 01:11:02.20001:11:02.210 and electrolytes available yields a 01:11:03.75901:11:03.769 variety of components suitable for 01:11:05.37901:11:05.389 diverse applications the development of 01:11:07.93001:11:07.940 low homing electrolyte systems in 01:11:09.48901:11:09.499 combination with electrodes with high 01:11:11.16901:11:11.179 Sciuto capacitance enable many more 01:11:13.02901:11:13.039 technical solutions the following table 01:11:15.91001:11:15.920 shows differences among capacitors of 01:11:17.62001:11:17.630 various manufacturers in capacitance 01:11:19.29901:11:19.309 range cell voltage internal resistance 01:11:21.39901:11:21.409 ESR DC or AC value and volumetric and 01:11:24.25001:11:24.260 gravimetric specific energy in the table 01:11:27.16001:11:27.170 ESR refers to the component with the 01:11:28.93001:11:28.940 largest capacitance value of the 01:11:30.45901:11:30.469 respective manufacturer roughly they 01:11:32.91901:11:32.929 divide super capacitors into two groups 01:11:34.72001:11:34.730 the first group offers greater ESR 01:11:36.97001:11:36.980 values of about 20 milli ohms and 01:11:38.70901:11:38.719 relatively small capacitance of 0.12 470 01:11:41.91901:11:41.929 F these are double layer capacitors for 01:11:44.91901:11:44.929 memory backup or similar applications 01:11:46.75001:11:46.760 the second group offers 100 to 10,000 F 01:11:49.54001:11:49.550 with a significantly lower ESR value 01:11:51.48901:11:51.499 under 1 million these components are 01:11:53.91901:11:53.929 suitable for power applications a 01:11:55.60001:11:55.610 correlation of some super capacitor 01:11:57.58001:11:57.590 series of different manufacturers to the 01:11:59.29001:11:59.300 various construction features is 01:12:00.70001:12:00.710 provided in Pandolfo and Hollen camp in 01:12:03.45901:12:03.469 commercial double layer capacitors or 01:12:05.25901:12:05.269 more specifically EDL CS in which energy 01:12:07.50901:12:07.519 storage is predominantly achieved by 01:12:09.31001:12:09.320 double layer capacitance energy is 01:12:10.98901:12:10.999 stored by forming an electrical double 01:12:12.54901:12:12.559 layer of electrolyte ions on the surface 01:12:14.41001:12:14.420 of conductive electrodes since EDL C's 01:12:17.25901:12:17.269 are not limited by the electrochemical 01:12:18.79001:12:18.800 charge transfer kinetics of batteries 01:12:20.73901:12:20.749 they can charge in this charge at a much 01:12:22.33001:12:22.340 higher rate with lifetimes of more than 01:12:24.06901:12:24.079 1 million cycles the e DLC energy 01:12:26.91901:12:26.929 density is determined by operating 01:12:28.54001:12:28.550 voltage in the specific capacitance 01:12:30.25001:12:30.260 farad per gram or farad per CC of the 01:12:32.50001:12:32.510 electrode electrolyte system the 01:12:34.77901:12:34.789 specific capacitance is related to the 01:12:36.60901:12:36.619 specific surface area SSA accessible by 01:12:39.10001:12:39.110 the electrolyte its interfacial double 01:12:40.83901:12:40.849 layer capacitance and the electrode 01:12:42.37001:12:42.380 material density commercial EDL C's are 01:12:45.58001:12:45.590 based on two symmetric electrodes 01:12:47.08001:12:47.090 impregnated with electrolytes comprising 01:12:48.97001:12:48.980 tetraethylammonium tetrafluoroborate 01:12:50.50001:12:50.510 salts in organic solvents current EDL 01:12:53.52901:12:53.539 C's containing organic electrolytes 01:12:55.27001:12:55.280 operate at 2.7 volts and reach energy 01:12:57.58001:12:57.590 densities around 5 to 8 watt hours per 01:12:59.50001:12:59.510 kilogram and 7 to 10 watt hours L the 01:13:02.43901:13:02.44901:13:04.23901:13:04.249 specific surface area s si 01:13:06.25001:13:06.260 accessible by the electrolyte it's 01:13:07.60001:13:07.610 interfacial double layer capacitance and 01:13:09.33901:13:09.349 the electrode material density 01:13:10.95001:13:10.960 graphene-based platelets with mezzo 01:13:13.08901:13:13.099 porous spacer material is a promising 01:13:14.89001:13:14.900 structure for increasing the SSA of the 01:13:16.77901:13:16.789 electrolyte 01:13:22.00001:13:22.010 topic standards super capacitors very 01:13:28.55001:13:28.560 sufficiently that they are rarely 01:13:29.75001:13:29.760 interchangeable especially those with 01:13:31.49001:13:31.500 higher specific energy applications 01:13:33.95001:13:33.960 range from low to high peak currents 01:13:35.54001:13:35.550 requiring standardized test protocols 01:13:37.49001:13:37.500 test specifications and parameter 01:13:39.20001:13:39.210 requirements are specified in the 01:13:40.64001:13:40.650 generic specification IEC and sixty 2391 01:13:45.50001:13:45.510 - one fixed electric double layer 01:13:47.24001:13:47.250 capacitors for use in electronic 01:13:48.53001:13:48.540 equipment the standard defines for 01:13:50.60001:13:50.610 application classes according to 01:13:52.19001:13:52.200 discharge current levels memory backup 01:13:55.36001:13:55.370 energy storage mainly used for driving 01:13:57.92001:13:57.930 motors require a short time operation 01:14:00.01001:14:00.020 power higher power demand for a long 01:14:02.60001:14:02.610 time operation instantaneous power for 01:14:05.75001:14:05.760 applications that requires relatively 01:14:07.28001:14:07.290 high current units or peak currents 01:14:08.95901:14:08.969 ranging up to several hundreds of 01:14:10.34001:14:10.350 amperes even with a short operating time 01:14:12.20001:14:12.210 three further standards describe special 01:14:14.09001:14:14.100 applications IEC 62,000 391 - two fixed 01:14:19.31001:14:19.320 electric double layer capacitors for use 01:14:21.02001:14:21.030 in electronic equipment blank detail 01:14:22.85001:14:22.860 specification electric double layer 01:14:24.44001:14:24.450 capacitors for power application IEC 60 01:14:28.07001:14:28.080 mm 576 electric double layer capacitors 01:14:31.43001:14:31.440 for use in hybrid electric vehicles test 01:14:34.10001:14:34.110 methods for electrical characteristics 01:14:36.10001:14:36.110 BS n 60 1881 - 3 Railway applications 01:14:41.17001:14:41.180 rolling stock equipment capacitors for 01:14:43.94001:14:43.950 power electronics electric double layer 01:14:45.92001:14:45.93001:14:50.53001:14:50.540 topic applications supercapacitors do 01:14:57.20001:14:57.210 not support AC applications super 01:15:00.14001:15:00.150 capacitors have advantages in 01:15:01.43001:15:01.440 applications where a large amount of 01:15:03.11001:15:03.120 power is needed for a relatively short 01:15:04.79001:15:04.800 time where a very high number of charged 01:15:06.62001:15:06.630 discharge cycles or a longer lifetime is 01:15:08.66001:15:08.670 required typical applications range from 01:15:11.27001:15:11.280 milliamp currents or milliwatts of power 01:15:12.77001:15:12.780 for up to a few minutes to several amps 01:15:14.84001:15:14.850 current or several hundred kilowatts 01:15:16.37001:15:16.380 power for much shorter periods the time 01:15:19.18901:15:19.199 ta super capacitor can deliver a 01:15:20.84001:15:20.850 constant current I can be calculated as 01:15:22.72001:15:22.730 T equals C you charge - you min I 01:15:34.45001:15:34.460 display style T equals practice e cdotu 01:15:37.61001:15:37.620 underscore texts charge you underscore 01:15:40.10001:15:40.110 texts min I as the capacitor voltage 01:15:42.89001:15:42.900 decreases from a charge down to omen if 01:15:45.70901:15:45.719 the application needs a constant power P 01:15:47.81001:15:47.820 for a certain time T this can be 01:15:49.28001:15:49.290 calculated as T equals 1 to P see you 01:15:59.20001:15:59.210 charge to minus u min to display style T 01:16:08.57001:16:08.580 equals prek-12 p CD OT c c vo t u 01:16:12.26001:16:12.270 underscore text charge carrot to you 01:16:14.41901:16:14.429 underscore text min carrot to wear in 01:16:17.62901:16:17.639 also the capacitor voltage decreases 01:16:19.28001:16:19.290 from or charge down to omen 01:16:25.03001:16:25.040 topic general 01:16:32.53001:16:32.540 topic consumer electronics 01:16:37.74001:16:37.750 in applications with fluctuating loads 01:16:39.99001:16:40.000 such as laptop computers PDAs GPS 01:16:42.66001:16:42.670 portable media players handheld devices 01:16:44.76001:16:44.770 and photovoltaic systems super 01:16:46.68001:16:46.690 capacitors can stabilize the power 01:16:48.21001:16:48.220 supply super capacitors deliver power 01:16:51.09001:16:51.100 for photographic flashes in digital 01:16:52.86001:16:52.870 cameras and for LED flashlights that can 01:16:54.84001:16:54.850 be charged in very short periods of time 01:16:56.49001:16:56.500 eg 90 seconds some portable speakers are 01:16:59.28001:16:59.290 powered by super capacitors 01:17:04.78001:17:04.790 topic tools 01:17:09.25001:17:09.260 a cordless electric screwdriver with 01:17:11.32001:17:11.330 super capacitors for energy storage has 01:17:13.21001:17:13.220 about half the runtime of a comparable 01:17:14.89001:17:14.900 battery model but can be fully charged 01:17:16.60001:17:16.610 in 90 seconds it retains 85% of its 01:17:19.81001:17:19.820 charge after three months left idle 01:17:25.60901:17:25.619 topic grid power buffer 01:17:30.65001:17:30.660 a group of v's and H V's during their 01:17:33.02001:17:33.030 charging process draw very high current 01:17:34.85001:17:34.860 for a short duration of time which 01:17:36.32001:17:36.330 creates power pulsation on the grid 01:17:38.03001:17:38.040 power pulsation not only reduces the 01:17:40.64001:17:40.650 efficiency of the grid and cause voltage 01:17:42.32001:17:42.330 drop in the common coupling bus but it 01:17:44.00001:17:44.010 can cause considerable frequency 01:17:45.44001:17:45.450 fluctuation in the entire system to 01:17:47.96001:17:47.970 overcome this problem super capacitors 01:17:49.82001:17:49.830 can be implemented as an interface 01:17:51.20001:17:51.210 between the charging station and the 01:17:52.70001:17:52.710 grid to buffer the grid from the high 01:17:53.99001:17:54.000 pulse power drawn from the charging 01:17:55.55001:17:55.560 station 01:18:00.16001:18:00.170 topic low power equipment power buffer 01:18:05.77001:18:05.780 super capacitors provide backup or 01:18:08.24001:18:08.250 emergency shutdown power to low power 01:18:10.07001:18:10.080 equipment such as RAM SR a.m. 01:18:12.01001:18:12.020 microcontrollers and PC cards they are 01:18:14.75001:18:14.760 the sole power source for low energy 01:18:16.52001:18:16.530 applications such as automated meter 01:18:18.20001:18:18.210 reading camera equipment or for event 01:18:20.12001:18:20.130 notification in industrial electronics 01:18:22.33001:18:22.340 super capacitors buffer power to and 01:18:24.70901:18:24.719 from rechargeable batteries mitigating 01:18:26.51001:18:26.520 the effects of short power interruptions 01:18:28.18901:18:28.199 and high current Peaks batteries kick in 01:18:30.65001:18:30.660 only during extended interruptions eg if 01:18:32.87001:18:32.880 the mains power or a fuel cell fails 01:18:34.72901:18:34.739 which lengthens battery life 01:18:36.85001:18:36.860 uninterruptible power supplies UPS may 01:18:39.53001:18:39.540 be powered by super capacitors which can 01:18:41.39001:18:41.400 replace much larger banks of 01:18:42.68001:18:42.690 electrolytic capacitors this combination 01:18:45.29001:18:45.300 reduces the cost per cycle saves on 01:18:47.18001:18:47.190 replacement and maintenance costs 01:18:48.59001:18:48.600 enables the battery to be downsized and 01:18:50.42001:18:50.430 extends battery life a disadvantage is 01:18:53.06001:18:53.070 the need for a special circuit to 01:18:54.43901:18:54.449 reconcile the differing behaviors super 01:18:57.22901:18:57.239 capacitors provide backup power for 01:18:58.88001:18:58.890 actuators in wind turbine pitch systems 01:19:00.92001:19:00.930 so that blade pitch can be adjusted even 01:19:02.78001:19:02.790 if the main supply fails 01:19:08.12901:19:08.139 topic voltage stabilizer super 01:19:14.02001:19:14.030 capacitors can stabilize voltage for 01:19:15.85001:19:15.860 powerlines wind and photovoltaic systems 01:19:18.34001:19:18.350 exhibit fluctuating supplier VOC by 01:19:20.16901:19:20.179 gusting or clouds that super capacitors 01:19:22.00001:19:22.010 can buffer within milliseconds this 01:19:24.12901:19:24.139 helps stabilize grid voltage and 01:19:25.78001:19:25.790 frequency balance supply and demand of 01:19:27.61001:19:27.620 power and manage real or reactive power 01:19:33.75001:19:33.760 topic energy harvesting super capacitors 01:19:40.03001:19:40.040 are suitable temporary energy storage 01:19:41.68001:19:41.690 devices for energy harvesting systems in 01:19:44.02001:19:44.030 energy harvesting systems the energy is 01:19:46.15001:19:46.160 collected from the ambient or renewable 01:19:47.77001:19:47.780 sources 01:19:48.22001:19:48.230 eg mechanical movement light or 01:19:49.96001:19:49.970 electromagnetic fields and converted to 01:19:51.88001:19:51.890 electrical energy in an energy storage 01:19:53.53001:19:53.540 device for example it was demonstrated 01:19:56.05001:19:56.060 that energy collected from RF radio 01:19:58.12001:19:58.130 frequency fields using an RF antenna as 01:20:00.49001:20:00.500 an appropriate rectifier circuit can be 01:20:02.14001:20:02.150 stored to a printed super capacitor the 01:20:04.66001:20:04.670 harvested energy was then used to power 01:20:06.37001:20:06.380 an application-specific integrated 01:20:07.72001:20:07.730 circuit a sixth circuit for over ten 01:20:09.85001:20:09.860 hours 01:20:14.41901:20:14.429 topic incorporation into batteries the 01:20:20.55001:20:20.560 ultra battery is a hybrid rechargeable 01:20:22.43901:20:22.449 lead acid battery and a super capacitor 01:20:24.18001:20:24.190 invented by Australia's national science 01:20:26.07001:20:26.080 organisation CSIRO it's cell 01:20:28.86001:20:28.870 construction contains a standard lead 01:20:30.51001:20:30.520 acid battery positive electrode standard 01:20:32.58001:20:32.590 sulfuric acid electrolyte and a 01:20:34.11001:20:34.120 specially prepared negative carbon based 01:20:35.91001:20:35.920 electrode that store electrical energy 01:20:37.62001:20:37.630 with double layer capacitance the 01:20:39.75001:20:39.760 presence of the super capacitor 01:20:41.07001:20:41.080 electrode old is the chemistry of the 01:20:42.63001:20:42.640 battery and affords its significant 01:20:44.18901:20:44.199 protection from sulfation in high rate 01:20:45.93001:20:45.940 partial state if charged use which is 01:20:47.61001:20:47.620 the typical failure mode of valve 01:20:48.95901:20:48.969 regulated lead acid cells use this way 01:20:51.12001:20:51.130 the resulting cell performs with 01:20:53.04001:20:53.050 characteristics beyond either a lead 01:20:54.63001:20:54.640 acid cell or a super capacitor with 01:20:56.43001:20:56.440 charge in discharge rates cycle life 01:20:58.22901:20:58.239 efficiency and performance all enhanced 01:21:00.18001:21:00.190 ultra battery has been installed in KW + 01:21:03.12001:21:03.130 MW scale applications in australia japan 01:21:05.43001:21:05.440 in the USA in frequency regulation solar 01:21:07.91901:21:07.929 smoothing and shifting wind smoothing 01:21:09.57001:21:09.580 and other applications 01:21:14.79001:21:14.800 topic streetlights Sato city in Japan's 01:21:21.28001:21:21.290 Niigata Prefecture has streetlights that 01:21:23.20001:21:23.210 combine a standalone power source with 01:21:25.00001:21:25.010 solar cells and LEDs super capacitors 01:21:27.91001:21:27.920 store the solar energy and supply to LED 01:21:30.04001:21:30.050 lamps providing 15 W power consumption 01:21:32.38001:21:32.390 overnight the super capacitors can last 01:21:34.84001:21:34.850 more than 10 years and offers stable 01:21:36.46001:21:36.470 performance under various weather 01:21:37.72001:21:37.730 conditions including temperatures from 01:21:39.46001:21:39.470 plus 400 to below minus 20 degrees 01:21:41.41001:21:41.420 Celsius 01:21:46.14001:21:46.150 topic medical super capacitors are used 01:21:52.15001:21:52.160 in defibrillators where they can deliver 01:21:53.68001:21:53.690 500 joules to shop the heart back into 01:21:55.60001:21:55.610 sinus rhythm 01:22:00.78001:22:00.790 topic transport 01:22:08.50001:22:08.510 topic aviation 01:22:13.23901:22:13.249 in 2005 aerospace systems and controls 01:22:16.41901:22:16.429 company deal love fight electronic GmbH 01:22:18.72901:22:18.739 chose super capacitors to power 01:22:20.22901:22:20.239 emergency actuators for doors and 01:22:21.87901:22:21.889 evacuation slides used in airliners 01:22:23.83001:22:23.840 including the Airbus 380 01:22:29.84001:22:29.850 topic military supercapacitors low 01:22:35.79001:22:35.800 internal resistance supports 01:22:37.11001:22:37.120 applications that require short-term 01:22:38.73001:22:38.740 high currents among the earliest uses 01:22:40.86001:22:40.870 were motor startup cold engine starts 01:22:42.66001:22:42.670 particularly with diesels for large 01:22:44.16001:22:44.170 engines in tanks and submarines super 01:22:46.77001:22:46.780 capacitors buffer the battery handling 01:22:48.60001:22:48.610 short current Peaks reducing cycling and 01:22:50.61001:22:50.620 extending battery life further military 01:22:53.40001:22:53.410 applications that require high specific 01:22:55.35001:22:55.360 power a phased array radar antenna laser 01:22:57.48001:22:57.490 power supplies military radio 01:22:59.22001:22:59.230 communications avionics displays and 01:23:01.14001:23:01.150 instrumentation backup power for airbag 01:23:03.15001:23:03.160 deployment and GPS guided missiles and 01:23:05.28001:23:05.290 projectiles 01:23:10.08001:23:10.090 topic automotive Toyota's Yaris hybrid 01:23:16.18001:23:16.190 our concept car uses a super capacitor 01:23:18.34001:23:18.350 to provide bursts of power PSA Peugeot 01:23:21.19001:23:21.200 Citroen has started using super 01:23:22.66001:23:22.670 capacitors as part of its stop start 01:23:24.31001:23:24.320 fuel saving system which permits faster 01:23:26.32001:23:26.330 initial acceleration 01:23:27.48001:23:27.490 Mazda's IE l oo p system stores energy 01:23:30.34001:23:30.350 in a super capacitor during deceleration 01:23:31.96001:23:31.970 and uses it to power onboard electrical 01:23:34.33001:23:34.340 systems while the engine is stopped by 01:23:35.86001:23:35.870 the stop start system 01:23:41.16001:23:41.170 topic bus tram Maxwell technologies an 01:23:47.47001:23:47.480 American super capacitor maker claimed 01:23:49.39001:23:49.400 that more than 20,000 hybrid buses use 01:23:51.43001:23:51.440 the devices to increase acceleration 01:23:53.17001:23:53.180 particularly in China Guangzhou in 2014 01:23:56.41001:23:56.420 China began using trams powered with 01:23:58.24001:23:58.250 super capacitors that are recharged in 01:23:59.89001:23:59.900 30 seconds by a device position between 01:24:01.90001:24:01.910 the rails storing power to run the tram 01:24:03.76001:24:03.770 for up to 4 kilometers more than enough 01:24:05.95001:24:05.960 to reach the next stop where the cycle 01:24:07.42001:24:07.430 can be repeated 01:24:12.68001:24:12.690 topic energy recovery 01:24:18.08901:24:18.099 a primary challenge of all transport is 01:24:20.06901:24:20.079 reducing energy consumption and reducing 01:24:21.95901:24:21.969 co2 emissions recovery of braking energy 01:24:24.78001:24:24.790 recuperation or regeneration helps with 01:24:27.18001:24:27.190 both this requires components that can 01:24:29.60901:24:29.619 quickly store and release energy over 01:24:31.22901:24:31.239 long times with a high cycle rate super 01:24:33.81001:24:33.820 capacitors fulfill these requirements 01:24:35.33901:24:35.349 and are therefore used in a lot of 01:24:36.81001:24:36.820 applications in all kinds of 01:24:38.10001:24:38.110 transportation 01:24:43.05901:24:43.069 topic railway super capacitors can be 01:24:49.06901:24:49.079 used to supplement batteries in starter 01:24:50.83901:24:50.849 systems in diesel railroad locomotives 01:24:52.63901:24:52.649 with diesel electric transmission the 01:24:54.94901:24:54.959 capacitors capture the braking energy of 01:24:56.77901:24:56.789 a full stop and deliver the peak current 01:24:58.27901:24:58.289 for starting the diesel engine and 01:24:59.75001:24:59.760 acceleration of the Train and ensures 01:25:01.33901:25:01.349 the stabilization of line voltage 01:25:03.27901:25:03.289 depending on the driving mode up to 30 01:25:05.62901:25:05.639 percent energy saving is possible by 01:25:07.42901:25:07.439 recovery of braking energy low 01:25:09.64901:25:09.659 maintenance and environmentally friendly 01:25:11.32901:25:11.339 materials encourage the choice of super 01:25:13.06901:25:13.07901:25:17.53001:25:17.540 topic cranes forklifts and tractors 01:25:23.29001:25:23.300 mobile hybrid diesel electric rubber 01:25:25.70001:25:25.710 tire gantry cranes move in stack 01:25:27.35001:25:27.360 containers within a terminal lifting the 01:25:29.72001:25:29.730 boxes requires large amounts of energy 01:25:31.37001:25:31.380 some of the energy could be recaptured 01:25:33.65001:25:33.660 while lowering the load resulting in 01:25:35.09001:25:35.100 improved efficiency a triple hybrid 01:25:36.86001:25:36.870 forklift truck uses fuel cells and 01:25:38.57001:25:38.580 batteries as primary energy storage and 01:25:40.37001:25:40.380 super capacitors to buffer power peaks 01:25:42.05001:25:42.060 by storing braking energy they provide 01:25:44.60001:25:44.610 the forklift with peak power over 30 01:25:46.46001:25:46.470 kilowatts the triple hybrid system 01:25:48.59001:25:48.600 offers over 50% energy savings compared 01:25:50.93001:25:50.940 with diesel or fuel cell systems super 01:25:52.91001:25:52.920 capacitor power terminal tractors 01:25:54.38001:25:54.390 transport containers to warehouses they 01:25:56.93001:25:56.940 provide an economical quiet and 01:25:58.61001:25:58.620 pollution-free alternative to diesel 01:26:00.17001:26:00.180 terminal tractors 01:26:05.33001:26:05.340 topic light rails and trams 01:26:10.79001:26:10.800 supercapacitors make it possible not 01:26:12.66001:26:12.670 only to reduce energy but to replace 01:26:14.25001:26:14.260 overhead lines in historical city areas 01:26:16.35001:26:16.360 so preserving the city's architectural 01:26:18.12001:26:18.130 heritage this approach may allow many 01:26:20.55001:26:20.560 new LRV city lines to replace overhead 01:26:22.71001:26:22.720 wires that are too expensive to fully 01:26:24.24001:26:24.250 route in 2003 Manheim adopted a 01:26:27.51001:26:27.520 prototype light rail vehicle LRV using 01:26:29.91001:26:29.920 the MIT RAC energy saver system from 01:26:32.25001:26:32.260 bombardier transportation to store 01:26:33.75001:26:33.760 mechanical braking energy with a 01:26:35.16001:26:35.170 roof-mounted super capacity unit it 01:26:37.56001:26:37.570 contains several units each made of 192 01:26:40.11001:26:40.120 capacitors with 2700 F to point 7 volts 01:26:43.32001:26:43.330 interconnected in three parallel lines 01:26:44.94001:26:44.950 this circuit results in a 518 volt 01:26:48.06001:26:48.070 system with an energy content of 1.5 01:26:50.22001:26:50.230 kilo watt hours for acceleration when 01:26:52.98001:26:52.990 starting this onboard system can provide 01:26:55.83001:26:55.840 the LRV with 600 kilowatts and can drive 01:26:58.26001:26:58.270 the vehicle up to one kilometer without 01:26:59.85001:26:59.860 overhead line supply thus better 01:27:01.35001:27:01.360 integrating the LRV into the urban 01:27:03.03001:27:03.040 environment compared to conventional L 01:27:05.64001:27:05.650 RVs or Metro vehicles that return energy 01:27:07.86001:27:07.870 into the grid onboard energy storage 01:27:09.60001:27:09.610 saves up to 30% and reduces peak Grid 01:27:11.82001:27:11.830 demand by up to 50 percent in 2009 super 01:27:15.60001:27:15.610 capacitors enabled L RVs to operate in 01:27:17.67001:27:17.680 the historical city area of Heidelberg 01:27:19.50001:27:19.510 without overhead wires thus preserving 01:27:21.24001:27:21.250 the city's architectural heritage the SC 01:27:23.97001:27:23.980 equipment cost an additional two hundred 01:27:25.41001:27:25.420 and seventy thousand euros per vehicle 01:27:27.24001:27:27.250 which was expected to be recovered over 01:27:29.13001:27:29.140 the first 15 years of operation the 01:27:31.62001:27:31.630 super capacitors are charged at stopover 01:27:33.48001:27:33.490 stations when the vehicle is at a 01:27:34.80001:27:34.810 scheduled stop in April 2011 German 01:27:37.65001:27:37.660 regional transport operator Rhine NECA 01:27:39.57001:27:39.580 responsible for Heidelberg ordered a 01:27:41.46001:27:41.470 further 11 units in 2009 Alstom and our 01:27:44.28001:27:44.290 ATP equipped a Citybus tram with an 01:27:46.05001:27:46.060 experimental energy recovery system 01:27:47.82001:27:47.830 called steam the system is fitted with 01:27:50.64001:27:50.650 48 roof-mounted super capacitors to 01:27:52.56001:27:52.570 store braking energy which provides 01:27:54.21001:27:54.220 tramways with a high level of energy 01:27:55.68001:27:55.690 autonomy by enabling them to run without 01:27:57.63001:27:57.640 overhead power lines on parts of its 01:27:59.40001:27:59.410 route recharging while traveling on 01:28:00.96001:28:00.970 powered stopover stations during the 01:28:03.48001:28:03.490 test which took place between the port 01:28:05.10001:28:05.110 Diddley and port that Joisey stops on 01:28:06.78001:28:06.790 line T 3 of the tramway network in Paris 01:28:08.85001:28:08.860 the tram set used an average of 01:28:10.23001:28:10.240 approximately 16% less energy in 2012 01:28:13.89001:28:13.900 tram operator Geneva public transport 01:28:15.93001:28:15.940 began tests of an LR V equipped with a 01:28:17.70001:28:17.710 product 01:28:18.15001:28:18.160 roof-mounted super capacitor unit to 01:28:19.92001:28:19.930 recover braking energy Siemens is 01:28:21.66001:28:21.670 delivering super capacitor enhanced 01:28:23.34001:28:23.350 light rail transport systems that 01:28:24.87001:28:24.880 include mobile storage Hong Kong South 01:28:26.82001:28:26.830 Island metro line is to be equipped with 01:28:28.53001:28:28.540 to two megawatts energy storage units 01:28:30.48001:28:30.490 that are expected to reduce energy 01:28:31.77001:28:31.780 consumption by 10% in August 2012 the 01:28:34.29001:28:34.300 CSR judo electric locomotive corporation 01:28:36.69001:28:36.700 of china presented a prototype to car 01:28:38.58001:28:38.590 light metro train equipped with a 01:28:39.90001:28:39.910 roof-mounted super capacity unit the 01:28:42.30001:28:42.310 train can travel up two kilometers 01:28:43.86001:28:43.870 without wires recharging in 30 seconds 01:28:45.99001:28:46.000 at stations via a ground mounted pickup 01:28:47.82001:28:47.830 the supplier claimed the trains could be 01:28:50.07001:28:50.080 used in 100 small and medium-sized 01:28:51.99001:28:52.000 Chinese cities seven trams streetcars 01:28:54.84001:28:54.850 powered by super capacitors were 01:28:56.43001:28:56.440 scheduled to go into operation in 2014 01:28:58.68001:28:58.690 in Guangzhou China the super capacitors 01:29:01.38001:29:01.390 are recharged in 30 seconds by a device 01:29:03.33001:29:03.340 position between the rails that powers 01:29:05.88001:29:05.890 the tram for up to four kilometers two 01:29:07.56001:29:07.570 point five miles as of 2017 Juho super 01:29:11.46001:29:11.470 capacitor vehicles are also used on the 01:29:13.32001:29:13.330 new Nanjing streetcar system and are 01:29:15.03001:29:15.040 undergoing trials in Wuhan in 2012 in 01:29:17.37001:29:17.380 Leon France the syt are al Li on public 01:29:20.22001:29:20.230 transportation administration started 01:29:22.08001:29:22.090 experiments of her waist side 01:29:23.64001:29:23.650 regeneration system built by a turtle 01:29:26.19001:29:26.200 group which has developed its own energy 01:29:28.02001:29:28.030 saver named neo green for lrv LRT and 01:29:30.54001:29:30.550 metros in 2015 Alstom announced SRS an 01:29:33.54001:29:33.550 energy storage system that charges super 01:29:35.55001:29:35.560 capacitors onboard a tram by means of 01:29:37.29001:29:37.300 ground-level conductor rails located at 01:29:39.15001:29:39.160 tram stops this allows trams to operate 01:29:41.85001:29:41.860 without overhead lines for short 01:29:43.20001:29:43.210 distances the system has been touted as 01:29:45.39001:29:45.400 an alternative to the company's 01:29:46.77001:29:46.780 ground-level power supply a PS system or 01:29:49.14001:29:49.150 can be used in conjunction with it as in 01:29:50.94001:29:50.950 the case of the VLT network in Rio de 01:29:52.89001:29:52.900 Janeiro Brazil which opened in 2016 01:29:59.50901:29:59.519 topic buses the first hybrid bus with 01:30:05.52001:30:05.530 super capacitors in Europe came in 2001 01:30:07.77001:30:07.780 in Nuremberg Germany it was men 01:30:10.25901:30:10.269 so-called ultra cap bus and was tested 01:30:13.07901:30:13.089 in real operation in 2001 2002 the test 01:30:17.03901:30:17.049 vehicle was equipped with a diesel 01:30:18.32901:30:18.339 electric drive in combination with super 01:30:20.27901:30:20.289 capacitors the system was supplied with 01:30:22.55901:30:22.569 eight ultra cap modules of 80 volts each 01:30:24.62901:30:24.639 containing 36 components the system 01:30:27.44901:30:27.459 worked with 640 volts and could be 01:30:29.48901:30:29.499 charged discharged at 400 a its energy 01:30:31.77001:30:31.780 content was 0.4 kilowatt hours with a 01:30:34.04901:30:34.059 weight of 400 kilogram the super 01:30:36.77901:30:36.789 capacitors recaptured braking energy and 01:30:38.72901:30:38.739 delivered starting energy fuel 01:30:40.46901:30:40.479 consumption was reduced by 10 to 15 01:30:42.41901:30:42.429 percent compared to conventional diesel 01:30:44.00901:30:44.019 vehicles other advantages included 01:30:46.61901:30:46.629 reduction of co2 emissions quiet and 01:30:48.68901:30:48.699 emissions free engine starts lower 01:30:50.25001:30:50.260 vibration and reduced maintenance costs 01:30:52.10901:30:52.119 as of 2002 in Luzon Switzerland an 01:30:55.46901:30:55.479 electric bus fleet called toh Y Co rider 01:30:57.95901:30:57.969 was tested the super capacitors could be 01:31:00.50901:31:00.519 recharged via an inductive contactless 01:31:02.27901:31:02.289 high-speed power charger after every 01:31:04.02001:31:04.030 transportation cycle within 3 to 4 01:31:06.02901:31:06.039 minutes in early 2005 Shanghai tested a 01:31:08.60901:31:08.619 new form of electric bus called capable 01:31:10.43901:31:10.449 that runs without power lines catenary 01:31:12.23901:31:12.249 free operation using large onboard super 01:31:14.36901:31:14.379 capacitors that partially recharged 01:31:15.89901:31:15.909 whenever the bus is at a stop under 01:31:17.42901:31:17.439 so-called electric umbrellas and fully 01:31:19.16901:31:19.179 charging the terminus in 2006 two 01:31:22.25901:31:22.269 commercial bus routes began to use the 01:31:23.87901:31:23.889 kaepa buses one of them is route 11 in 01:31:25.64901:31:25.659 Shanghai it was estimated that the super 01:31:28.13901:31:28.149 capacitor bus was cheaper than a 01:31:29.48901:31:29.499 lithium-ion battery bus and one of its 01:31:31.34901:31:31.359 buses had 1/10 the energy cost of a 01:31:33.27001:31:33.280 diesel bus with lifetime fuel savings of 01:31:35.38901:31:35.399 $200,000 a hybrid electric bus called 01:31:37.73901:31:37.749 tribrid was unveiled in 2008 by the 01:31:39.83901:31:39.849 University of Glamorgan Wales for use as 01:31:42.11901:31:42.129 student transport it is powered by 01:31:44.36901:31:44.379 hydrogen fuel or solar cells batteries 01:31:46.43901:31:46.449 and ultra capacitors 01:31:51.61001:31:51.620 topic motor racing the FIA a governing 01:31:57.98001:31:57.990 body for motor racing events proposed in 01:31:59.96001:31:59.970 the powertrain regulation framework for 01:32:01.82001:32:01.830 Formula one version 1.3 of the 23rd of 01:32:04.13001:32:04.140 May 2007 that a new set of powertrain 01:32:06.50001:32:06.510 regulations be issued that includes a 01:32:08.15001:32:08.160 hybrid drive of up to 200 kilowatts 01:32:09.86001:32:09.870 input and output power using super 01:32:12.17001:32:12.180 batteries made with batteries and super 01:32:14.51001:32:14.520 capacitors connected in parallel kurz 01:32:16.25001:32:16.260 about 20% tank two-wheel efficiency 01:32:18.83001:32:18.840 could be reached using the Kerr system 01:32:20.59001:32:20.600 the toyota TSO 300 hybrid lmp1 car a 01:32:24.41001:32:24.420 racing car developed and the LeMans 01:32:26.03001:32:26.040 prototype rules uses a hybrid drivetrain 01:32:28.19001:32:28.200 with super capacitors in the 2012 24 01:32:31.22001:32:31.230 Hours of LeMans race a TSO 300 qualified 01:32:33.68001:32:33.690 with a fastest lap only 1.055 seconds 01:32:36.56001:32:36.570 slower three twenty four point eight 01:32:38.06001:32:38.070 forty two versus three twenty three 01:32:39.50001:32:39.510 point seven eight seventh in the fastest 01:32:41.48001:32:41.490 car an Audi r18 e-tron Quattro with 01:32:43.73001:32:43.740 flywheel energy storage the super 01:32:46.07001:32:46.080 capacitor and flywheel components whose 01:32:47.90001:32:47.910 rapid charge discharge capabilities 01:32:49.64001:32:49.650 helped in both braking and acceleration 01:32:51.26001:32:51.270 made the Audi and Toyota hybrids the 01:32:53.21001:32:53.220 fastest cars in the race in the 2012 01:32:56.00001:32:56.010 lemons race the two competing TS 30 s 01:32:58.10001:32:58.110 one of which was in the lead for part of 01:32:59.66001:32:59.670 the race both retired for reasons 01:33:01.25001:33:01.260 unrelated to the super capacitors the 01:33:03.59001:33:03.600 TSO 300 won three of the eight races in 01:33:05.84001:33:05.850 the 2012 FIA World Endurance 01:33:07.37001:33:07.380 Championship season in 2014 the Toyota 01:33:10.79001:33:10.800 TSO 400 Hybrid used a super capacitor to 01:33:13.22001:33:13.230 add 480 horsepower from two electric 01:33:15.50001:33:15.510 motors 01:33:20.08001:33:20.090 topic hybrid electric vehicles super 01:33:26.15001:33:26.160 capacitor battery combinations in 01:33:27.83001:33:27.840 electric vehicles and hybrid electric 01:33:29.84001:33:29.850 vehicles HEV are well investigated a 01:33:32.09001:33:32.100 twenty to sixty percent fuel reduction 01:33:34.55001:33:34.560 has been claimed by recovering brake 01:33:36.05001:33:36.060 energy in V's or HEV s the ability of 01:33:39.17001:33:39.180 super capacitors to charge much faster 01:33:40.97001:33:40.980 than batteries they're stable electrical 01:33:42.65001:33:42.660 properties brought a temperature range 01:33:44.12001:33:44.130 and longer lifetime are suitable but 01:33:45.80001:33:45.810 weight volume and especially cost 01:33:47.24001:33:47.250 mitigate those advantages super 01:33:49.79001:33:49.800 capacitors lower specific energy makes 01:33:51.59001:33:51.600 them unsuitable for use as a standalone 01:33:53.21001:33:53.220 energy source for long distance driving 01:33:54.95001:33:54.960 the fuel economy improvement between a 01:33:57.47001:33:57.480 capacitor and a battery solution is 01:33:59.09001:33:59.100 about twenty percent and is available 01:34:00.50001:34:00.510 only for shorter trips for long-distance 01:34:03.05001:34:03.060 driving the advantage decreases to six 01:34:05.06001:34:05.070 percent vehicles combining capacitors 01:34:07.25001:34:07.260 and batteries run only in experimental 01:34:09.05001:34:09.060 vehicles as of 2013 all automotive 01:34:11.24001:34:11.250 manufacturers of EV or h-e-bs have 01:34:13.10001:34:13.110 developed prototypes that uses super 01:34:14.96001:34:14.970 capacitors instead of batteries to store 01:34:16.46001:34:16.470 braking energy in order to improve 01:34:18.14001:34:18.150 driveline efficiency the mazda6 is the 01:34:20.87001:34:20.880 only production car that uses super 01:34:22.52001:34:22.530 capacitors to recover braking energy 01:34:24.28001:34:24.290 branded as Iowa the regenerative braking 01:34:26.96001:34:26.970 is claimed to reduce fuel consumption by 01:34:28.58001:34:28.590 about 10% Russian yokas eMobile series 01:34:31.31001:34:31.320 was a concept and crossover hybrid 01:34:32.93001:34:32.940 vehicle working with a gasoline driven 01:34:34.49001:34:34.500 rotary vane type and an electric 01:34:36.05001:34:36.060 generator for driving the traction 01:34:37.46001:34:37.470 motors a super capacitor with relatively 01:34:39.98001:34:39.990 low capacitance recovers brake energy to 01:34:41.96001:34:41.970 power the electric motor when 01:34:43.16001:34:43.170 accelerating from a stop Toyota's Yaris 01:34:45.20001:34:45.210 hybrid our concept car uses a super 01:34:47.12001:34:47.130 capacitor to provide quick bursts of 01:34:48.65001:34:48.660 power PSA peugeot citroen fit super 01:34:50.75001:34:50.760 capacitors to some of its cars as part 01:34:52.49001:34:52.500 of its stop start fuel saving system as 01:34:54.44001:34:54.450 these permits fastest startups when the 01:34:56.12001:34:56.130 traffic lights turn green 01:35:01.45001:35:01.460 topic gondolas 01:35:05.97001:35:05.980 yNN's LMC austria and ariel live 01:35:08.52001:35:08.530 connects the city with schmidt in hawaii 01:35:09.96001:35:09.970 martin the gondolas sometimes run 24 01:35:12.78001:35:12.790 hours per day using electricity for 01:35:14.72901:35:14.739 lights door opening and communication 01:35:16.44001:35:16.450 the only available time for recharging 01:35:19.02001:35:19.030 batteries at the stations is during the 01:35:20.55001:35:20.560 brief intervals of guests loading and 01:35:22.05001:35:22.060 unloading which is too short to recharge 01:35:23.82001:35:23.830 batteries super capacitors offer a fast 01:35:26.52001:35:26.530 charge higher number of cycles and 01:35:28.22901:35:28.239 longer lifetime than batteries Emirates 01:35:30.99001:35:31.000 Airline cable car also known as the 01:35:33.03001:35:33.040 Thames cable car is a one kilometer 0.62 01:35:35.85001:35:35.860 miles gondola line that crosses the 01:35:37.38001:35:37.390 Thames from the Greenwich Peninsula to 01:35:38.85001:35:38.860 the Royal Docks the cabins are equipped 01:35:41.10001:35:41.110 with a modern infotainment system which 01:35:42.84001:35:42.850 is powered by super capacitors 01:35:49.00001:35:49.010 topic development 01:35:54.11001:35:54.120 as of 2013 commercially available 01:35:56.18001:35:56.190 lithium-ion super capacitors offered the 01:35:58.46001:35:58.470 highest gravimetric specific energy to 01:36:00.26001:36:00.270 date reaching 15 watt hours per kilogram 01:36:02.51001:36:02.520 54 kilo joules per kilogram research 01:36:05.54001:36:05.550 focuses on improving specific energy 01:36:07.52001:36:07.530 reducing internal resistance expanding 01:36:09.59001:36:09.600 temperature range increasing lifetimes 01:36:11.39001:36:11.400 and reducing costs projects include 01:36:14.21001:36:14.220 tailored pore size electrodes pseudo 01:36:16.01001:36:16.020 capacitive coding or doping materials 01:36:17.84001:36:17.850 and improved electrolytes 01:36:18.98001:36:18.990 a research into electrode materials 01:36:21.71001:36:21.720 requires measurement of individual 01:36:23.24001:36:23.250 components such as an electrode or half 01:36:25.10001:36:25.110 cell by using a counter electrode that 01:36:27.65001:36:27.660 does not affect the measurements the 01:36:28.97001:36:28.980 characteristics of only the electrode of 01:36:30.62001:36:30.630 interest can be revealed specific energy 01:36:33.29001:36:33.300 and power for real super capacitors only 01:36:35.21001:36:35.220 have more or less roughly one third of 01:36:36.86001:36:36.870 the electrode density topic marketers of 01:36:40.61001:36:40.620 2016 worldwide sales of super capacitors 01:36:43.10001:36:43.110 is about 400 million dollars the market 01:36:45.20001:36:45.210 for batteries estimated by Frost and 01:36:46.94001:36:46.950 Sullivan 01:36:47.45001:36:47.460 grew from 47 point five billion dollars 01:36:49.66001:36:49.670 76.4% or thirty six point three billion 01:36:52.31001:36:52.320 dollars of which was rechargeable 01:36:53.75001:36:53.760 batteries to 95 billion dollars the 01:36:56.30001:36:56.310 market for super capacitors is still a 01:36:58.01001:36:58.020 small niche market that is not keeping 01:36:59.66001:36:59.670 pace with its large arrival in 2016 01:37:02.60001:37:02.610 ETA checks forecast sales to grow from 01:37:04.43001:37:04.440 240 million dollars to 2 billion dollars 01:37:06.71001:37:06.720 by 2026 an annual increase of about 24% 01:37:09.59001:37:09.600 super capacitor costs in 2006 were one 01:37:12.29001:37:12.300 cent per farad or two dollars and 85 01:37:14.18001:37:14.190 cents per kilo Joule moving in 2008 01:37:16.40001:37:16.410 below one cent per farad and were 01:37:17.90001:37:17.910 expected to drop further in the medium 01:37:19.55001:37:19.560 term 01:37:24.60901:37:24.619 topic trade or series nouns 01:37:30.53001:37:30.540 exceptional for electronic components 01:37:32.72901:37:32.739 like capacitors are the manifold 01:37:34.11001:37:34.120 different trade or series names used for 01:37:35.94001:37:35.950 super capacitors like a power cap best 01:37:37.86001:37:37.870 cap boost cap cap xx CSEC hdl-c AP in a 01:37:41.61001:37:41.620 captain ever cap Dyna cap farad cap 01:37:43.77001:37:43.780 green cap gold cap high cap captain 01:37:45.84001:37:45.850 capacitor super capacitor super cap par 01:37:48.24001:37:48.250 capacitor Pallister sudo cap 01:37:50.01001:37:50.020 ultracapacitor making it difficult for 01:37:51.75001:37:51.760 users to classify these capacitors 01:37:53.66001:37:53.670 compared with hash tag comparison of 01:37:55.92001:37:55.930 technical parameters 01:38:00.67001:38:00.680 topic see also topic literature a burner 01:38:07.67001:38:07.680 HD kiya why Henderson JC 2008 batteries 01:38:12.26001:38:12.270 and electrochemical capacitors PDF fears 01:38:15.02001:38:15.030 today 01:38:15.68001:38:15.690 12:43 247 bockris Jerome Devon Ethan ma 01:38:20.00001:38:20.010 vie mullah K 1963 on the structure of 01:38:23.63001:38:23.640 charged interfaces proc aa sock a 274 13 01:38:28.37001:38:28.380 56 55 to 79 bib code 1 963 rsps 8.27 455 01:38:35.09001:38:35.100 be DOI ten point one zero nine eight RSP 01:38:38.75001:38:38.760 a point one nine six three point zero 01:38:40.37001:38:40.380 one one four began Francois Raymond open 01:38:43.88001:38:43.890 era e fraca v AK l ta da 2009 eight 01:38:47.75001:38:47.760 electrical double layer capacitors and 01:38:49.88001:38:49.890 pseudo capacitors carbons for 01:38:51.71001:38:51.720 electrochemical energy storage and 01:38:53.39001:38:53.400 conversion systems CRC press 01:38:55.70001:38:55.710 pp 329 - 375 01:38:59.27001:38:59.280 toi ten point one two zero one nine 01:39:02.03001:39:02.040 seven eight one four two zero zero five 01:39:03.95001:39:03.960 five 405 c8 ISBN nine seven eight one 01:39:07.64001:39:07.650 four two zero five five four oh five 01:39:10.27001:39:10.280 Conway Brian Evans 1999 electrochemical 01:39:14.48001:39:14.490 super capacitors scientific fundamentals 01:39:16.64001:39:16.650 and technological applications Springer 01:39:18.98001:39:18.990 TOI ten point one zero zero seven nine 01:39:21.65001:39:21.660 seven eight one four seven five seven 01:39:23.69001:39:23.700 three oh five eight six ISBN 978 oh 01:39:27.38001:39:27.390 three oh six four five seven three sixty 01:39:29.39001:39:29.400 four jang jae jiang l lu h son a blue RS 01:39:34.07001:39:34.080 2011 eight electrochemical super 01:39:37.25001:39:37.260 capacitors electrochemical technologies 01:39:39.56001:39:39.570 for energy storage and conversion 01:39:41.15001:39:41.160 weinheim wiley-vch pp 317 - 382 ISBN 978 01:39:48.20001:39:48.210 three five two seven three two eight six 01:39:50.90001:39:50.910 nine seven Lightner KW winter m % hard 01:39:54.98001:39:54.990 jo 2003 composite super capacitor 01:39:58.37001:39:58.380 electrodes j solid state electronic 01:40:00.80001:40:00.810 eight one 15 to 16 do i ten point one 01:40:04.46001:40:04.470 zero zero seven per seconds 100 800 304 01:40:07.97001:40:07.980 1 2 X a Brahimi editor F September 27 01:40:11.84001:40:11.850 2012 now 01:40:13.13001:40:13.140 composites new trends and developments 01:40:14.54001:40:14.550 in tech GOI 10.5 772 3389 ISBN 978 955 01:40:23.57001:40:23.580 107 6200 CS 1 mayn't extra text authors 01:40:27.11001:40:27.120 list link Kinoshita k january 18th 1988 01:40:30.67001:40:30.680 carbon electrochemical and 01:40:32.72001:40:32.730 physicochemical properties john wiley & 01:40:35.09001:40:35.100 sons ISBN 978 oh four seven one eight 01:40:38.36001:40:38.370 four eight zero two eight wolf cabbage 01:40:40.91001:40:40.920 ym zodiac TM 2002 electrochemical 01:40:45.08001:40:45.090 capacitors Russ J electric m38 9 935 - 01:40:50.18001:40:50.190 959 DOI 01:40:52.64001:40:52.650 10.1 0 to 3 1 trillion 20 billion 220 01:40:56.51001:40:56.520 million four hundred and twenty five 01:40:57.86001:40:57.870 thousand nine hundred and fifty four 01:40:59.56001:40:59.570 Polana Selvam thank evolu back Jang beo 01:41:02.54001:41:02.550 m 2015 graphene-based 2d materials for 01:41:06.38001:41:06.390 super capacitors 2d materials - 303 200 01:41:09.80001:41:09.810 - big code 2015 trillion German marks to 01:41:13.76001:41:13.770 see 200 to p do I ten point one zero 01:41:17.03001:41:17.040 eight eight twenty fifty three the third 01:41:18.95001:41:18.960 of February 15 83 oh three 200 - plone 01:41:22.73001:41:22.740 Harry 2015 composite for energy storage 01:41:25.61001:41:25.620 takes the heat nature 523 seven thousand 01:41:29.66001:41:29.670 five hundred and sixty two 536 - 537 bib 01:41:34.34001:41:34.350 code 2015 nature point five two three 01:41:36.77001:41:36.780 five three six p DOI ten point one zero 01:41:40.01001:41:40.020 three eight five two three five three 01:41:41.84001:41:41.850 six a pmid twenty-six million two 01:41:45.05001:41:45.060 hundred and twenty three thousand six 01:41:46.52001:41:46.530 hundred and twenty Lee key 2015 flexible 01:41:50.33001:41:50.340 high temperature dielectric materials 01:41:52.10001:41:52.110 from polymer nano composites nature 523 01:41:55.61001:41:55.620 seven thousand five hundred and 01:41:57.11001:41:57.120 sixty-two 576 to 579 bib code 2015 01:42:02.51001:42:02.520 nature 0.5 to 3 576 L DOI ten point one 01:42:07.37001:42:07.380 zero three eight nature fourteen 01:42:09.08001:42:09.090 thousand six hundred and forty seven 01:42:10.99001:42:11.000 pmid twenty-six million two hundred and 01:42:13.67001:42:13.680 twenty three thousand six hundred and 01:42:15.11001:42:15.120 twenty five electrochemical capacitors 01:42:17.81001:42:17.820 theory materials and applications 01:42:19.69001:42:19.700 materials research foundations 01:42:21.77001:42:21.780 twenty-six Materials Research Forum LLC 01:42:24.80001:42:24.810 2018 DOI 01:42:26.63001:42:26.640 ten 01:42:27.11001:42:27.120 point two one seven four one nine 01:42:28.58001:42:28.590 trillion 781 billion nine hundred and 01:42:31.01001:42:31.020 forty five million two hundred and 01:42:32.48001:42:32.490 ninety one thousand five hundred and 01:42:33.92001:42:33.930 seventy nine ISBN nine trillion seven 01:42:36.95001:42:36.960 hundred and eighty-one billion nine 01:42:38.21001:42:38.220 hundred and forty five million two 01:42:39.68001:42:39.690 hundred and ninety one thousand five 01:42:41.12001:42:41.130 hundred and sixty-two
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